Ini Indexs
In multi-racial, multi-religious, multi-lingual Singapore, where East meets West, traditional Chinese opera stands as an important keeper of Singaporean Chinese heritage.
Traditional Chinese opera in Singapore has been documented in both Western and Chinese historical records over many years, the earliest being an 1845 account describing Chinese street opera during the Lunar New Year by Charles Wilkes (1798–1877), commander of the United States Exploring Expedition.1After that, Li Zhongjue (1853–1927), then the Chinese consul in Singapore, gave a more detailed account of what he witnessed in 1887 at a theatre performance in his book Xinjiapo fengtu ji (The Local Landscape and Customs in Singapore): “At a place named Niucheshui (Chinatown) in Dapo (South Bridge Road area), there are restaurants, brothels, and theatres… with male and female troupes. Four to five venues in Dapo and one or two in Xiaopo (North Bridge Road area) all perform Cantonese opera and occasionally stage Hokkien and Teochew opera for their respective kinfolk…”2
Records show that before 1893, there were already eight theatres in Singapore: Lai Chun Yuen at 36 Smith Street in Chinatown; Pu Chang Chun, which later became Heng Wai Sun and Heng Seng Peng at 21 and 24 Wayang Street (now known as Eu Tong Sen Street) respectively; Ee Hng at 41 Merchant Road, the street at which Jing Chun Yuan, Yang Chun Yuan, Dan Gui Yuan, and Sheng Chun Yuan were also located; and Diet Hng at 61 New Market Road (also known as Feng Jiao Jie locally).3Among these early theatres, Lai Chun Yuen, Heng Wai Sun, and Heng Seng Peng performed Cantonese opera exclusively (though Heng Seng Peng also performed Hokkien and Peking opera later on), while Diet Hng and Ee Hng mainly staged Teochew opera.4
At the turn of the 20th century, two new theatres were built at Chinatown. The first was the Palacegay Theatre, which was established in 1921 at the intersection of New Bridge Road and Kreta Ayer Road and later renamed Oriental Theatre (known as Oriental Plaza today). The second was built diagonally across from the Palacegay Theatre in 1928 and called the Tien Yien Moh Toi. It was renamed Queen’s Theatre in 1938 upon leasing it when it was rented out to Shaw Organisation and specially screened Cantonese films, and subsequently Majestic Theatre (now known as The Majestic) when the lease was transferred to Majestic Film Company in 1945.
In the early days, traditional Chinese opera performances were often held in teahouses in the Chinatown area, such as at Da Dong Restaurant, Nan Tang Restaurant, and the Nam Tin Restaurant (now known as Yue Hwa Building), among others. The Nam Tin Restaurant, located in the Great Southern Hotel was built by tycoon Eu Tong Sen (1877–1941), a lover of Cantonese opera, and its rooftop terrace on the sixth floor was a teahouse where Cantonese and Peking opera were performed.
Built in 1923 along Serangoon Road and Kitchener Road, New World (1923–1987) was Singapore’s first large-scale amusement park, and staged free traditional Chinese opera, plays, and singing performances. In 1929, a local tycoon bought a piece of land in the Kim Seng Road area not far from Chinatown and built Great World (1931–1981), which also staged a variety of traditional Chinese opera performances and plays for free. In 1935, the final of the famous trio of amusement parks, Happy World (1937–1964), was built between Mountbatten Road and Geylang Road and later renamed Gay World (1964–2000). It had two arenas dedicated to performing various types of traditional Chinese opera, including Cantonese, Teochew, and Hokkien opera.
Early immigrants from Fujian, Guangdong, Hainan, and other regions from southern China introduced traditional Chinese opera to Singapore. As a province well-known for its opera, Fujian is home to many genres of traditional Chinese operas with a long history, including min opera, liyuan opera, gaojia opera, xiang opera (also known as gezai opera), and more, though none was ever known specifically as Hokkien opera. In fact, the term “Hokkien opera” emerged during the localisation process of Chinese opera in Singapore.
Min opera, also known as Fuzhou or Fuqing opera, is the local traditional opera in Fujian that is sung or recited in the Fuzhou dialect. The accompanying music for min opera evolved mainly from the yiyang vocal style, siping vocal style, anhui opera, and kun opera.
In Singapore, what was broadly referred to as Hokkien opera was called gaojia opera in the early days.5Gaojia opera was popular in the vast southern Fujian area where the min dialects were spoken, Taiwan, and Chinese-populated areas in Southeast Asia. Its origins can be traced back to folk festivals dedicated to deities that were popular with southern Fujian folk in the late-Ming and early-Qing period. It evolved from simple martial arts performances to shows with intricate storylines, such that by the end of the Qing dynasty, it had cemented itself as a unique genre of local opera, containing elements from kun opera, hui opera, yiyang tune, and Peking opera, among others. It was then that it received the name of gaojia opera, gao referring to the tall stages it was performed on and jia referring to the armour and spears that were part of performers’ costumes.
Historically speaking, gaojia opera was the earliest traditional Chinese opera genre from Fujian that came to Singapore.6Before 1843, gaojia opera troupes from Nan’an in Fujian had already been to Singapore to perform. Later, other troupes arrived, such as Fu Jin Xing (1844–1850), Fu Yu Xing (1851–1857), Fu Quan Xing (1855–1860), and Xi Dong (1862–1866).7Gaojia opera in Singapore thus gradually rose to prominence, reaching its peak in the early 20th century.8
At the turn of the 20th century, a huge wave of Chinese immigrants from Fuzhou headed south to Singapore, bringing along Fuzhou opera (min opera). Between 1920 and 1940, Fuzhou opera troupes that came to Singapore to perform included Xin Sai Yue (1928), Qun Fang Nu (1927), and others.9Following that, the earliest homegrown Fuzhou opera guild, See Mee Club (1930), was formed under the Singapore Foochow Association and exclusively performed min operas from China.10
Gezai opera is another Chinese dialect opera genre belonging to the Minnan language family. During the late-Ming and early-Qing period in the 17th century, immigrants from the Minnan region introduced jin songs, which originated from folk songs, to Taiwan. Its lyrics were translated into Taiwanese dialects, and the genre was known as gezaidiao, gezaizhen, and more, before finally spreading throughout Taiwan as gezai opera. In 1928, the Taiwanese gezai opera troupe San Yue Hsuan brought the genre back to the Minnan region by performing widely in Longxi and Xiamen. During this period, especially in the area near Zhangzhou’s Xiangjiang river basin, there were more than 250 gezai opera schools.11 In 1954, this particular type of performance was officially named xiang opera by the China government.12
In 1930, the Feng Huang troupe arrived in Singapore and performed at Heng Seng Peng. Thereafter, other gezai opera troupes like Feng Wu She, Sai Feng Huang, Xin Feng Huang, Tong Yi She, De Sheng She, Dan Feng She, and others, arrived to perform at theatres, amusement parks, kampongs, and other locations.13
In 1936, gaojia opera troupe Fu Yong Xing, which had already taken root in Singapore, also began to perform gezai opera, changing its name to the Xin Sai Feng Weiji Minju tuan (Sin Sai Hong Gwee’s Hokkien Opera Troupe). Gaojia opera troupes gradually lost influence in Singapore and the genre’s hundred-year legacy and popularity came to an end in 1942 with the dissolution of Tong Fu Xing, with gezai opera taking its place. This marked a unique milestone in Singapore’s Hokkien opera scene. Evidently, the evolution from gaojia, to min, to gezai or xiang opera reflects the transformation and maturation of local Hokkien opera through the integration of the strengths of different opera genres.
Traditional Teochew opera, also known as Chaozhou opera, chaoyin opera, and Chaozhou baizi opera, is one of the three major genres of traditional opera from Guangdong (the other two being yue opera and Guangdong han opera) and also one of the 10 major types of traditional Chinese opera. With a history of over 400 years, Teochew opera is one of the oldest local Chinese operas and belongs to a branch of southern operas dating back to the Yuan and Ming dynasties, having emerged from Teochew-speaking regions. Its beautiful song and dance performances can be traced back to Central Plains culture, such as the baixi (acrobatics) and dance of the Tang dynasty, as well as influences from the Lingnan region during that time period. Teochew opera music also has a tradition of using offstage supporting vocals, a singing style not commonly seen in other local Chinese opera genres. More importantly, Teochew opera plays an important role in preserving the thousand-year-old Teochew culture.
Towards the end of Emperor Guangxu’s reign during the Qing dynasty (1875–1908), the popularity of Teochew opera was at its peak, having spread to coastal areas like Shanghai, the Leizhou Peninsula, Hainan, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Thailand, Malaysia, and Singapore, which was a major hub for the dissemination and development of Teochew opera in Southeast Asia. In addition to the Lao Sai Thor Guan Opera Troupe, which had already taken root in Singapore since 1853, the Lao Gheg Lao Cung troupe was also among the earliest Teochew opera troupes to arrive in Singapore in 1900. The Lau Sai Yong Hong troupe, the Lao Rong He Xing troupe, the Lao Wan Li Chun troupe, and others, arrived more than a decade later.
Traditional Cantonese opera, also known as Guangfu opera and Guangdong opera, is a mainstream genre from Guangdong that can similarly be traced back to the southern opera of the Yuan dynasty. Originating in Foshan and appearing in the region of Guangdong and Guangxi during Emperor Jiajing’s reign of the Ming dynasty (1522–1566), it is performed in the Cantonese dialect.
In the fourth year of Emperor Xianfeng’s reign of the Qing dynasty (1854), Li Wenmao (unknown–1858), a famous Cantonese opera wusheng (martial and elderly male lead) from Heshan, Guangdong, joined the Taiping Rebellion (1851–1864) together with the three armies he organised comprising his fellow troupe artistes: the wenhu (scholarly tigers), menghu (fierce tigers), and feihu (flying tigers). Together, they stormed the city, killed the magistrate, and declared a new regime in his name, only to be quashed later by the Qing military. To eradicate all remaining influence of the three armies, the Qing government slaughtered troupe artistes and banned Cantonese opera performances for 15 years. During this period, local Cantonese opera artists fled to other counties or migrated overseas, including to Singapore.
In 1857, Cantonese opera artistes in Singapore officially established their own guild called Li Yuan Tang, later renamed Pat Wo Wui Kun in 1890, on Chin Chew Street (commonly known as Tofu Street then) in Chinatown to provide assistance to Cantonese opera artists from Guangdong who had sought refuge here. As a result, Singapore was known as the second home of traditional Cantonese opera.
Perhaps the most well-known genre of traditional Chinese opera, Peking opera took shape during the reigns of Emperors Daoguang (1782–1850) and Guangxu (1875–1908) during the Qing dynasty.14It evolved from its predecessor, hui opera, also commonly known as pihuang opera. The most important stages of development in the history of Peking opera seemed to loosely coincide with Singapore’s founding in 1819 and its subsequent development, namely its incubation period from 1790 to 1880, its maturation from 1880 to 1917, and its peak from 1917 to 1938.15
According to historical records, the earliest Peking opera performance in Singapore was by Fu Xiang Sheng. Over 90 members strong, it was made up of key members of Fuzhou’s Xiang Sheng troupe — of hui origin — as well as artistes selected from Beijing, Tianjin, and Shanghai. They performed from 27 December 1893 to 6 January 1894 at the Heng Seng Peng theatre in Chinatown.16
At the time, Peking opera had developed from an imperial court opera to one that had spread throughout all regions in China. There were also Fuzhou opera troupes in Singapore that modelled themselves after Fu Xiang Sheng and invited Peking opera artistes from all over China to join them. In 1910, Xin Xiang He, resident troupe of Heng Seng Peng, invited over 80 Peking opera artistes from Xiamen to them and perform on the same stage. As a result, Fuzhou and Peking opera performers sharing the same stage became a defining feature of Singapore’s Peking opera scene during that period.17
Qiong opera, also known as traditional Hainanese opera, shares a common lineage with liyuan opera and Teochew opera, among others. The predecessor of Hainanese opera was tuxi, which was initially introduced to Hainan from the southern Fujian and Chaoshan regions. Its singing style is derived from the high-pitched and intense yiyang vocal style, and performed by the lead vocal and an answering chorus. Later on, it absorbed Hainanese folk songs and musical styles such as gewu bayin (eight melodies of song and dance) and developed into a local opera genre with Hainanese characteristics.18
During Emperor Xianfeng’s reign of the Qing dynasty (1831–1861), artiste Qing Shoulan (1805–1895) from Longgun Village in Wanning, Hainan established the Qiong Shun troupe in 1852 to perform in various parts of Hainan Island. Due to the corruption within the Qing government, anti-Qing sentiments among the people were high, and progressive artistes wrote and performed a large number of anti-Qing plays, leading to them being constantly cracked down on by Qing soldiers. Because of this, Qing Shoulan led his troupe to flee to Southeast Asia in 1859. After arriving in Singapore, it became Hainanese opera’s earliest wenwu troupe (troupe with both singing and martial arts scene) in Southeast Asia. The Xing Zhou opera society that was later founded by Qing Shoulan became the pioneer of Hainanese opera in Singapore.
In the 1920s, feudal warlords created much chaos in Guangdong, causing a large number of Hainanese opera artistes to sail to Singapore, including Qiong Han Nian; Xiu Ming, also known as San Sheng Ban (1927); and Wu Fa Feng (1927). That marked the start of the golden age of Hainanese opera in Singapore.
During the unique formation and evolution of local traditional Chinese opera, there was an influx and spread of Guangdong han opera (hanju), also known as waijiang hanxi, or waijiang xi (1910–1940) in Singapore. This form of opera was practised by amateur ruyue (scholar’s music) societies, such as the Er Woo Amateur Musical & Dramatic Association (1912), Lak Aik Amateur Musical and Drama Association (1929), the Thau Yong Amateur Musical Association (1931), and Xinghua Ruyue She (1935). This contributed greatly to the development of ruyue in Singapore, and has gone on to shape the distinctive characteristics of Singapore’s Teochew opera ever since.
In the past 30 years, Shanghai yue opera has also been introduced and brought into Singapore, resulting in the emergence of a number of newly established local yue opera troupes, which are increasingly loved by young audiences.
Ini Indexs
Unlike traditional Chinese opera, which uses song and dance to tell stories, Chinese theatre (or drama) conveys narratives, dramatic conflict, and characterisation mainly through spoken dialogue – including monologues – as well as other techniques. Chinese theatre in Singapore started to take shape only in the early 20th century, much later than traditional Chinese opera, which was already well-established in Singapore by the late 19th century.
From a sociohistorical perspective, Chinese theatre sprang from the growing dissatisfaction that early 20th century Chinese intellectuals and newer audiences had with the form and content of traditional opera. As a result, this gave rise to a more “modern” type of performance.1
The earliest Chinese theatre performance in Singapore could be traced back to 1913, at the Sheng Ping Yuan theatre in Chinatown. The Zhen Tian Sheng troupe from Hong Kong performed plays written in vernacular Chinese or baihua (plain Chinese) there.2That same year, Lai Chun Yuen, a traditional Cantonese opera venue in Chinatown, also staged baihua plays by local troupe Qi Ying Shan She, which was considered “a pioneering feat in modern theatre in Singapore”.3
At that time, this type of performance — distinct from traditional Chinese opera — was known in China as xinju (new play), wenmingxi (cultured play), aimeiju (amateur play), or baihuaju (vernacular play). In 1928, Hong Shen (1894–1955), the first Chinese director to study Western drama in the United States, began to define such performances as huaju. In Singapore, such performances were known as xinju, and later baihuaxi.4Baihua refers to the language used in daily life, as opposed to verses and lyrics recited in classical Chinese in traditional Chinese opera. Local scholar Quah Sy Ren discovered that most of the languages spoken in these baihua plays that appeared in Singapore at the time were likely the dialects of different Chinese-speaking ethnic groups who hailed from different parts of China.5
In 1914, the first formal baihua theatre company in Singapore, the Guofeng Huanjing Cishanban, was jointly set up by several major newspapers and book publishers, which premiered plays such as Heihai cihang (Sailing the Dark Sea), Hairen zhong haiji (Karma Strikes), and Guohuai xingxue (National Education) in 1915.6 In the same year, an all-female local theatre company called Nüjie Cishe was set up, and staged charity performances at Sheng Ping Yuan.7
As Quah pointed out, baihua plays by Chinese theatre troupes who travelled south, as well as those being actively performed locally in the 1920s, formed the foundations of modern Chinese theatre in Singapore.8
The Rensheng Baihua Jushe premiered three plays in 1918, the year it was founded, to raise funds for disaster relief. These plays were Dongfang jianying (The Shadow of the Sword in the Bridal Chamber), Xunhuanjing (Rotating Mirror), and Fengliudu (Venomous Romance). Back on stage again in 1920, it later held three to four performances a year between 1922 and 1926. This led to the emergence of more local baihua theatre clubs in the 1920s.
During this period, most of these baihua clubs were amateur theatre groups. In addition to Rensheng Baihua Jushe, the more active groups were Nanyang Chinese Students Society (established in 1919), Tong Seok Dramatic Association (1924), Baihua Cishan Jushe (1920), Hoi Thin Club (1920), Qingnian Jindehui (1921), United Chinese Library (1922), Xingyu Lizhi Xueshe (1923), Tongwen Shubaoshe (1923), and Tarn Kah Keng Ying Charitable Dramatic Association (1926).
Theatre performances by students and alumni associations were also a notable feature of early baihua theatre in Singapore. As early as 1915, students from Yeung Ching School (now Yangzheng Primary School) organised a baihua theatre club and performed Dufu xianxing (An Evil Woman Exposed), Hao naner (A Good Man), Tonge youbao (An Eye for an Eye), and Jiagou an (Case of the Fake Dog), creating a local student theatre scene. According to Quah, more than 40 local primary and secondary schools staged student plays from 1919 to the 1920s.9
When local baihua theatre was in still in early days, the majority of performances were organised for charitable causes. Most plays were still being developed — many did not even have scripts, only an outline of the scenes. Those that did have scripts were still rough around the edges.10 Performance standards were not high yet, mainly because baihua theatre still lacked a clear vision when it came to content and artistic form.
From 1927, discussions of “incorporating Nanyang colours into the arts” started to appear in Singapore-Malayan newspapers. After the article “The development of the new drama movement in Nanyang” was published in Kwong Wah Yit Poh,11 Lat Pau also pitched in with an article in 1929 by Huang Seng that proposed “rooting the arts in Nanyang soil, and creating literary and artistic works with Nanyang characteristics”.12 There were 22 Chinese theatre scripts written locally between 1922 and 1932.13 And since 1933, the centre of Malayan Chinese theatre activities had shifted from Penang to Singapore.
Besides Sheng Ping Yuan theatre (the new theatre), Heng Wai Sun, Heng Seng Peng, and Tong Le Yuan, all of which mainly performed traditional Chinese opera at the time, Wonderland Amusement Park (1921), New World Amusement Park (1923), Great World Amusement Park (1930), and Happy World (1936, renamed Gay World Amusement Park in 1966) all had areas for the performance of traditional Chinese opera as well as short baihua plays. During that period, professional song and dance troupes from China travelled to Singapore to perform. Among them were two troupes from Shanghai, the Bright Moon Song and Dance Troupe (1928) led by Li Jinhui, widely regarded as the father of Chinese popular music; and the Plum Blossom Song and Dance Troupe (1933/1935), which performed comedies and new plays.
In addition, Qingnian Lizhi Xueshe — established in 1919, and renamed Qingnian Lizhi She, or Nanyang Chinese Students’ Society in 1929 — became a driving force behind local baihua theatre in the early 1930s. It performed twice at the Victoria Memorial Hall (now Victoria Theatre and Concert Hall) in the 1920s,14 staging Youyihui zhuanchang (Special Entertainment) in 1923, and Kelian guiliyue (Poor Moon in the Boudoir) in 1924. This started the trend of holding Chinese-language arts performances in venues previously exclusive to Western performing arts.
In 1933, the society performed four local original short plays at the same venue: Fang Niang (Miss Fang), Lülinzhong (In the Green Forest), Yisinü (Serving Girl), and Xiongmei zhi’ai (Love Between Siblings). These shows were widely thought to have invigorated the Chinese theatre scene in Singapore.15
That same year, there were three other noteworthy performances by local companies: Nan gui (Returning South) by the Mayfair Musical and Dramatic Association; Shehui zhong (Clock of Society) and Chuxi (New Year’s Eve) by Ai Tong School Alumni Association; and Shenghuo de yizhi (The Will to Live) by Nam Loo Society. These vibrant developments were an important part of the transformation of Chinese theatre in Singapore.
In 1937, following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in China, theatre activities became the main art form through which the local Chinese expressed their support for the anti-Japanese resistance. As a result, Chinese theatre in Singapore continued to mature as performances were held frequently. This period is regarded as the first peak in its historical development.16
First, student theatre activities in Singapore had grown significantly. In 1937, local schools performed a number of classic Chinese plays from abroad. For instance, Chong Hock Girls’ School performed Cao Yu’s (1910–1996) Thunderstorm, while Nan Hwa Girls’ School performed Tian Han’s (1898–1968) Return of Spring.
Second, the Singapore Amateur Theatre was established that year, bringing together well-known figures from the realms of theatre, education, music, and other arts circles. On multiple occasions between 1938 and 1939, the group performed plays related to the anti-Japanese war movement, including street drama Fangxia nide bianzi (Put Down Your Whip), Richu (Sunrise), and Yuye (Rainy Night).
Third, during this period, professional performing arts troupes from China, such as the Wuhan Chorus (1938) and the New China Drama Troupe (1940), came as either guest performers or collaborated with local companies. They brought with them more original works related to the anti-Japanese war resistance, as well as classic traditional operas, which inspired the emergence of more original local Chinese plays.
Between 1937 and 1941, 77 Chinese plays were published in Singapore. Although most of these works had anti-Japanese and nationalist themes, they also reflected the everyday realities of Singapore and Malaya. This inspired local playwrights to localise and adapt theatrical content as a creative pursuit.17One-act plays and dialect plays were the main new creations that arose during this period.
In 1939, Britain declared war on Germany and wartime laws were enacted in Singapore, making regular it increasingly difficult for theatre activities to go on. Amateur theatre clubs were temporarily forced to disband. In early 1942, Singapore fell to the Japanese and street theatre activities ground to a complete halt, leading to a slump in Chinese theatre.
From the end of World War II in 1945 to the establishment of the Republic of Singapore in 1965, Singapore had transitioned from the anti-colonial period to self-governance and finally to independence. During this period, local Chinese theatre also experienced a revival, embracing a vibrant new outlook. Quah referred to the 15-year anti-colonial period as “one of the most vibrant and active periods of modern Singapore theatre, brimming with a strong sense of social consciousness”.18
During the first stage of the anti-colonial period from 1945 to 1949, there were as many as 17 Chinese theatre companies in Singapore, including the Xingzhou Experimental Theatre, Seagull Theatre Company, Singapore Children’s Playhouse, Zhonghua Juyishe, Min Sin Dramatic Association, Lu Nam Ke Huan, and Xinlongfeng Min Dialect Troupe, among others.19 Professional screenwriters and directors emerged from these companies, among them Zhu Xu (1909–2007), Low Ing Sing (1924–2000) and Lin Chen (1919–2004) from Xingzhou Experimental Theatre; and Du Bian (1914–1997) from Singapore Children’s Playhouse and the Seagull Theatre Company.
Besides professional groups, there were as many as 28 amateur clubs during that period. The more active ones included the Malaya New Democratic Youth League, Mayfair Musical and Dramatic Association, the drama arm of Bell O’Morn Musical Association, Yeung Ching Alumni Association, Young Men’s Christian Association of Singapore, and the Hokkien Huay Kuan’s education promotion group.20 Seven theatrical companies belonging to professional trade unions also emerged around that time.21
There were also 22 school theatre clubs. Chung Cheng School’s 1954 performance of the classic Chinese play Family at the Victoria Theatre exhibited such a high level of professionalism that it was considered an important milestone in the history of Malayan Chinese theatre development.22
At the same time, the appearance of two theatre companies from abroad meant that local audiences were able to enjoy many well-developed Chinese plays. The Mingxing Troupe, from Hong Kong, staged a Cantonese version of Thunderstorm (1945). The China Music Dance and Drama Society also presented original works such as Singapore’s Chinatown: A Changing Scene and The Fate of Three Miles Village in 1947–1948. Dialect plays from the pre-war era also resurfaced.23
During this boom, a group of new theatre companies emerged, such as the Zhongjiao Jutuan (1953), which comprised secondary school teachers; Kang Leh Musical Association (1954); Rediffusion Mandarin Drama Group (1954); Arts Theatre of Singapore (1955), initiated by the alumni of Chung Cheng High School Drama Club; Artist Association of Singapore (1956) comprising professional getai entertainers; I-Lien Drama Society (1957), backed by the original key members of Zhongjiao Jutuan; Nanyang University Theatre Society (1957); Cathay Organisation (1958); Xingzhou Juyishe (1959).
Although they were known as “amateur theatre clubs”, these non-professional companies demonstrated a certain level of expertise in their performances, as seen in the selection of complex, classic plays they put up, as well as from newspaper reviews of their performances. Among them, the Arts Theatre of Singapore and I-Lien Drama Society performed more frequently, and mostly featured classic overseas Chinese plays. Today, both organisations are still active, making them the two oldest surviving local Chinese theatre companies in Singapore.
Ini Indexs
Singapore achieved self-governance in 1959, joined Malaysia in 1963, and became an independent nation in 1965. During this period, the Chinese language theatre scene in Singapore developed its own unique characteristics.
In 1959, the government proposed building the National Theatre. To raise funds for the theatre, which officially opened in 1963, the Singapore Amateur Players (now Arts Theatre of Singapore) staged two charity performances in 1960 of Singapore’s Chinatown: A Changing Scene written by Yue Ye (1920–2001) in 1948, as well as another double bill of the original one-act play by local playwrights Lin Chen (1919–2004) and Lu Bai.
In 1960, the government’s Ministry of Culture held its first playwriting competition, which included categories in the four official languages. The winning works were adapted into radio plays and performed by Radio Singapura. The government also held two annual cultural festivals in 1960 and 1961 under the National Theatre Fund committee. During this period, performances of local plays were received with much enthusiasm.1
In 1965, the Ministry of Culture started a committee for promoting theatre, and organised a local one-act playwriting competition. That same year, the Central Cultural Bureau of the People’s Action Party also established a drama arm, and held a special performance of original one-act local plays at Victoria Theatre.
On 9 August 1965, the Republic of Singapore was born. That year, Kuo Pao Kun (1939–2002) and Goh Lay Kuan set up the Singapore Performing Arts School and staged their first play, Kaoyan (The Test). In 1972, graduates from the drama training programme founded their own troupe called Selatan Arts Ensemble (later known as the Southern Arts Society).
The Singapore Children’s Playhouse was born in 1965. Initially affiliated with the Chinese department of Radio Singapura, its members were mentored by senior broadcasters and Thia Mong Teck (1936–2007), the brain behind radio plays. In 1970, the Children’s Playhouse became an independent arts organisation. It went on to set up more than 10 professional units for various activities. As its members grew older, a youth branch was established in 1971. At its peak, the Children’s Playhouse and its youth offshoot had close to 500 members. It was one of the most active local Chinese theatre companies in the 1970s.
The bustling 1970s also saw the birth of more Chinese language theatre companies,2 including the Singapore Art Experimental Studio (1971), Life Drama Society (1971), People’s Association Cultural Troupe’s drama group (1972), Xiang Yang Jushe (1972), Chuen-Lei Literature and Arts Association (1972), Young People’s Performing Arts Ensemble (1973), Singapore Broadway Playhouse (1973), Sun Flower Arts Ensemble (1973), Hsinghai Art Association (1974), Chang Feng Jushe (1974), and Chang-Tee Cultural Organisation (1974).
In 1978, the government launched the Drama Promotion Scheme, and the Ministry of Culture began organising annual theatre festivals in the four official languages. This important platform for Chinese language theatre performance spanned the entire 1980s, and gave rise to an array of original classic plays by local theatre companies, such as The Flying Swallow (1984) by the Singapore Amateur Players, Princess Jasmine (1984), by I-Lien Drama Society, and Five Libras (1986) by the Southern Arts Society.3
More theatre companies were established during this period, including the Chin Kang Huay Kuan’s affiliated drama group (1978); Chuangyi Xijutuan (1980); the theatre company under the Nanyang Fang Shee Association (1983–1986); and the Lianhe Bao Drama Group (1984). Local bilingual Chinese-English theatre companies also made their debut, such as The Practice Theatre Ensemble (1986), which was renamed The Theatre Practice in 1996; as well as Arts & Acts (1986–1989).
Plays performed by students and alumni associations also ushered in a new chapter for the local theatre scene. It was common to see plays performed by junior college students. National Junior College, for instance, mounted a special staging of one-act plays at the Victoria Theatre in 1976. That same year, Hwa Chong Junior College organised an annual theatre festival featuring public performances. Nanyang Junior College and Temasek Junior College also started staging theatre performances for the public in 1976 and 1977 respectively.
Theatre activities by junior college students resulted in a fresh pool of talent in the local scene. For example, Hwa Chong Junior College alumni who performed Fuhao mama in 1991 — among them Lim Hai Yen, Baey Yam Keng, and others — would go on to form theatre group The ETCeteras five years later. The group remains active today.
At the fourth Singapore Festival of Arts in 1982, 14 local Chinese language theatre companies teamed up to present The Little White Sailing Boat, ushering in another period of flourishing of Chinese theatre in the 1980s.4 The production brought together a team of veterans who were still active in Singapore Chinese theatre. For instance, Wang Qiutian (1905–1990) and Zhu Xu (1909–2007) were advisors; Low Ing Sing (1924–2002) and Tay Bin Wee (1926–2000) served as chairpersons; and Lin Chen and Chow Liliang (1926–2019) were playwright-directors. Kuo Pao Kun was executive writer-director of the production, which featured close to 50 actors from different generations, as well as members of the 14 theatre companies who worked behind the scenes. It held six sold-out performances at the Victoria Theatre — four in end-1982 and two more the following year.
In 1984, 17 local Chinese theatre companies again collaborated for a performance of Han Lao Da’s new play Oolah World. The production, directed by Hua Liang, Han Lao Da, and Kuo, signalled the rise of a new generation in local Chinese theatre. Two years later, the Singapore Festival of Arts featured Kopi Diam, which was written and directed by Kuo Pao Kun. It involved 23 theatre companies, including those from clan associations as well as National Junior College, Hwa Chong Junior College, Nanyang Junior College, and Temasek Junior College. The event took collaborative Chinese theatre in Singapore to new heights.
In 1991, the National Arts Council was established to oversee the planning and implementation of national policies related to the arts. Around the same time, Kuo Pao Kun founded The Substation in 1990. As Singapore’s first independent contemporary arts centre, it was a platform for the arts in different languages and mediums, especially those that were more experimental and avant-garde. As a younger generation of arts practitioners matured, the 1990s saw the birth of more trailblazing organisations. Among them were Drama Box (1990); Toy Factory Productions (1990); The ETCeteras (1991); Lim Jen Erh and Friends (later renamed Yixiang Zhizhuoqun) (1992); Wutai Zapai Jun (1994); Theatre OX (1995); and The Finger Players (1996), which was founded under The Practice Theatre Ensemble and went independent in 1999.5
Esplanade — Theatres on the Bay, a milestone in the history of Singapore’s arts and cultural development, opened in 2002. In 2005, Drama Centre moved from its Fort Canning home to the newly-completed National Library building, where it has a 615-seat mid-sized theatre and a 120-seat black box. Modern facilities gave various local performing arts activities, including Chinese theatre, a boost as arts groups here strove for greater professional development.
During this period, notable local theatre companies such as The Practice Theatre, Toy Factory Productions, Drama Box, Arts Theatre of Singapore, and I-Lien Drama Society regularly staged original plays and experimented with different styles. Other companies like The Finger Players and Paper Monkey Theatre (2008) focused on developing styles in puppetry performance. While The Finger Players targeted youths, Paper Monkey Theatre pitched its performances at children and families.
The list of companies would not be complete without Nine Years Theatre (2012) and Emergency Stairs (2017), both unique with their own artistic directions. Nine Years Theatre is dedicated to reinterpreting classic works, as well as producing adaptations of local Mandarin classics in Chinese dialects. Emergency Stairs, meanwhile, is the only experimental Chinese language theatre company known for multidisciplinary and multifaceted works which push artistic boundaries.
Singapore Focus Theatre, comprising graduates from the theatre department of Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts (NAFA), was established in 2010 and became a non-profit organisation in 2016. Since 2002, the graduation performances of (Chinese) drama majors at NAFA have been geared towards reviving world theatre classics, including local original plays. The event has since become an indispensable part of the colourful local Chinese theatre scene.
In the new millennium, unique and mature works of local theatre — reflecting the scene’s multifaceted quality — have appeared on the global stage.
In 2014, the Singapore Arts Festival (established in 1999) was rebranded as the Singapore International Festival of Arts (SIFA). Nanyang, The Musical , a commissioned work that was jointly presented by local artistes, premiered at the inaugural SIFA 2015. Two years later, Nine Years Theatre was commissioned to adapt and stage the local Chinese literary work Art Studio (2017). Every year since then, commissioned productions and performances by local Chinese language theatre companies have been a regular feature of SIFA.
More local Chinese theatre companies have also taken the initiative to organise drama or arts festivals since 2000. These include Works for Pao Kun – Legend Alive (2002) by Practice Performing Arts Centre, where international directors paid tribute to the late Kuo Pao Kun; the Kuo Pao Kun Festival (2003, 2012); the M1 Chinese Theatre Festival (2011, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017); and Drama Box’s New Play Season (2009, 2011).
Being invited to perform in overseas drama festivals or exhibitions has become the norm for local Chinese theatre groups. Drama Box took part in the Singapore Season in China in 2007; Toy Factory Productions has staged multiple works in China (2003, 2010, 2013, 2014, 2017); Nine Years Theatre participated in the Macao Arts Festival (2013); I-Lien Drama Society was invited to the Masan International Theatre Festival in South Korea (2002, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2010, 2014, 2016) as well as the Shandong International Small Theatre Drama Festival in China (2009, 2014); and Arts Theatre of Singapore was involved in three editions (2014, 2017, 2023) of the China-ASEAN Theatre Week.
Over the past century, Chinese language theatre in Singapore has transformed from a “foreign import” into a Singaporean art form with its own unique charm.
Ini Indexs
Four types of Chinese opera varieties originating from China’s Fujian province were once prevalent in Singapore: Gaojia, Liyuan, Pu Xian, and gezai opera.
What Singaporeans presently refer to as Hokkien opera actually refers to gezai and xiang opera. While originating from the same place, these two opera forms feature distinct performance styles and formats.
Sin Sai Hong Hokkien Opera Troupe played a significant role in preserving and promoting Gaojia opera in the 1950s before the troupe ventured into gezai opera. In 1982, Siong Leng Musical Association invited Chen Jia Bao (birth and death year unknown) from China to conduct Liyuan opera acting classes in Singapore. In 1987, the artists staged the traditional Gaojia opera play, Wang Xiu.1
Siong Leng Musical Association hired numerous directors, musical composers, and actors to stage large-scale Liyuan opera performances. These works included Shakyamuni Buddha (1993), The Legend of Mulian Rescuing His Own Mother (1995), The Legend of the Tragic Crane (1996), Master Hongyi (1999), as well as various xiaoxi or shorter plays, and zhezi xi or opera excerpts. In 2000, Siong Leng Musical Association halted its Liyuan opera performances to focus on promoting nanyin and related activities.
Currently, Pu Xian opera performances in Singapore are limited to the Mulian drama series staged at Kiew Lee Tong Temple, a Hokkien Taoist temple. These performances are held once every decade. In the 1970s, Kiew Lee Tong Temple purchased suitable costumes and props from Taiwan, and organised opera shows in Singapore staged by amateur performers. Subsequently, the temple invited Pu Xian opera troupes from China to perform in Singapore when their schedules aligned.
Since 1990, Lorong Koo Chye Sheng Hong Temple has celebrated the Birthday of Ann Kway Sheng Hong Deity, which falls on the 28th day of the fifth lunar month, by hosting 100 days of opera performances. The occasion has become the most prominent platform for local gezai opera troupes to showcase their performances as part of the Chinese temples’ festive traditions. Opera troupes which regularly perform at the festival include Xiao Kee Lin Hokkien Opera Troupe, Ming Yang Opera Troupe, Xin Yan Ling Hokkien Opera Troupe, Ong Si Mui Opera Troupe, Sim Hong Choo Opera Troupe, Nga Sheng Hokkien Opera Troupe, Shuang Ming Feng Opera Troupe, and Hokkien Four-Seasons Spring Troupe.2
As for the Xiang opera, among the amateur artists in the local opera scene, Sim Siew Tin Xiang Opera Troupe is renowned for the wealth of experience of its performers and creative team. The troupe was formerly known as the Bukit Panjang Hokkien Kong Huay Xiang Opera Troupe. In 1986, it successfully staged the opera excerpt Lingering Farewell as its inaugural performance. Under the leadership of both the Bukit Panjang Hokkien Konghuay and troupe leader Sim Siew Tin, the troupe further staged a series of opera excerpts such as Balcony Romance (1987), Lingering Farewell (1987), and The Legend of the Grocery Store (1987). In 1992, the troupe premiered its first full-length opera, The Hatred of Zither and Sword. Subsequently, the troupe performed various Xiang opera favourites from China, such as Birthday Celebrations by Five Daughters (1994), The Emperor and the Village Girl (1996), and Justice Bao (1996), in accordance with the performance styles of China’s Xiang opera. In 2006, the opera troupe was invited to stage Courtesan Yu Tang Chun in Taipei. The play was scripted by Teo Sung Lung and composed by Fu Zi Liang.
In 2013, Sim Siew Tin left Bukit Panjang Hokkien Konghuay and founded Sim Siew Tin Xiang Opera Troupe. The operas staged by the new troupe include Seeking a Husband in the Mountain Fortress (2013), scripted and composed by Zhuang Hai Ning; Our Story, Our Opera (2014), scripted by Teo Sung Lung and composed by Zhuang Hai Ning; Hokkien musical drama Journey to Singapore (2016) scripted by Yap Kim Chye and directed by Sim Siew Tin; and Butterflies Awakening (2016) scripted by Teo Sung Lung, composed by Ng Lim, and directed by Sim Siew Tin.
In 1997, Singapore’s Chinese Opera Institute hired Li Xiu Hua from Xiamen and Hong Xiu Yu from Taipei as senior teachers to conduct classes on Xiang opera and gezai opera. In 1998, Li Xiu Hua directed the Xiang play, Ramayana, adapted by Chua Soo Pong and based on the ancient Indian epic of the same name. Li also directed other performances such as the traditional play Deep Emotions with the Little Shop (1999), and the Teochew-and-Xiang opera hybrid Fire on the Riverside Chamber (1999). The Singapore Chinese Opera Institute appointed Taipei opera performer Hong Xiu Yu as a senior teacher in 2004. Since then, she has collaborated with Chua Soo Pong to direct and produce many of the Institute’s cross-cultural gezai opera performances. Their repertoire of cross-cultural adaptations includes Ramayana (2004); Mahabharata (2006), adapted from the ancient Indian epic tale of the same name; The Doctor in Spite of Himself (2007), adapted from French playwright Molière’s comedy of the same name; and The Chalk Circle (2008), based on the Yuan dynasty playwright Li Qianfu’s work of the same name. Additionally, Chua Soo Pong and Hong Xiu Yu collaborated on Hokkien opera production, with Chua overseeing scriptwriting and Hong handling musical arrangements. These productions drew inspiration from classical Chinese literature, and included Nie Xiaoqian (2004), Painted Skin (2005), and Handan Dream (2008).
Since its establishment in 2013, Jade Opera Group (in collaboration with Chua Soo Peng) has staged numerous productions, including The General and the Witches (2013), adapted from English playwright William Shakespeare’s Macbeth; The Missing Bride (2016), based on the Indonesian legend, Tales of Prince Panji; and The Government Inspector (2022), based on Russian novelist Nikolai Gogol’s famous work of the same name. The numerous productions of Jade Opera Group have received invitations to prestigious international theatre festivals. The staging of these performances in countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, China, Iran, Belgium, the United States of America, and Taiwan has contributed to the promotion of gezai opera globally. For over 20 years, Hong Xiu Yu has tirelessly staged traditional opera performances, with some productions being staged more than 10 times. These beloved classics include Fan Li Hua and Xue Ding Shan, Tang Bohu Selects Qiuxiang, Emperor Zhengde Visits South China, and The Legend of White Snake. Hong has also nurtured a generation of young gezai opera performers, including Teng Su Yuin, Huang Yu Ying, One Choo Eng, Goh Poh Huay and Tan Zhen Xuan.3
Ini Indexs
Over the years, more than a dozen Chinese-language writers in Singapore have received the Cultural Medallion and the Young Artist Award, which are presented by the National Arts Council.
The Cultural Medallion, Singapore’s highest award for culture and arts, was initiated in 1979 by Singapore’s then-Acting Minister for Culture Ong Teng Cheong (1936–2002). The annual award recognises those who have made significant contributions to the country’s arts and cultural landscape. As of 2023, it has been awarded to 135 artists.
The nine Chinese writers who received the Cultural Medallion are Wong Meng Voon (1981), Wong Yoon Wah (1986), Zhou Can (1990), Dan Ying (1996), Yeng Pway Ngon (2003), Xi Ni Er (2008), You Jin (2009), Lin Gao (2015), and Chia Joo Ming (2021).
Wong Meng Voon (pen name Meng Yi) is known for his short stories and microfiction. He is one of the 14 founding members of the Singapore Association of Writers and served as its president for 18 years. In the 1990s, he played a significant role in promoting the creation and theoretical research of microfiction.
Wong Yoon Wah was the president of the Singapore Association of Writers for 12 years. A scholar of Chinese literature as well as a writer, his literary philosophy is that each of the four official languages in Singapore has its own rich literary tradition, and combined with the experiences unique to Singapore, it forms a distinct local literary tradition.
Zhou Can (Chew Kok Chang) navigates the fields of poetry, creative nonfiction, fiction, children’s literature, and literary criticism. His poems are generally simple and easy to understand. As a prolific writer, he has written numerous books of creative and critical literature. He is also one of the founding members of the Singapore Association of Writers and is its former Vice President in the 1970s.
Dan Ying (Lew Poo Chan) writes poetry and prose. Her poetry expresses the subtle emotions of women as well as a strong, assertive spirit. Her prose is emotionally rich and her narrative techniques are adept, portraying the pure, beautiful aspects of human nature.
Yeng Pway Ngon (1947–2021) had more than 20 published works, including poetry collections, novels, plays, essay collections, and commentaries. His works are imbued with a strong sense of critical consciousness. He founded the magazines Chazuo (Teahouse) and Jiechu (Contact) in 1969 and 1991 respectively. He also established Grassroots Book Room, one of Singapore’s Chinese bookstores, in 1995. He passed away in 2021 due to illness.
Xi Ni Er (Chia Hwee Pheng) served as the president of the Singapore Association of Writers for 12 years. He captures the vulnerabilities of human nature and social anomalies in works ranging from poetry to microfiction. Some of his works constitute part of the Singapore’s Scar Literature. His writings on the Vietnam War, World War II, and Korean War are imbued with a strong anti-war consciousness.
You Jin (Tham Yew Chin) writes novels, creative nonfiction, and travelogues. She has authored more than 200 works, of which five have been translated into English, along with an essay collection translated into Indonesian. Her works have been selected as extracurricular reading materials by numerous schools in Singapore and have become research texts for graduate students at several universities.
Lin Gao (Lim Hung Chang) writes lyric essays, microfiction, poetry, and literary criticism. His works are subtle and restrained, often analysed the depth of human nature between casual statements and dialogues. He has served as the Vice President of the Singapore Association of Writers and has been active in the Ministry of Education’s Author-in-Residence Programme for many years.
Chia Joo Ming often explores different themes in his works. His works possess a profound historical sense, coupled with innovative ideas and a critical spirit. He had served as a sub-editor of Lianhe Zaobao for many years. Harvard University scholar David Wang Der-wei has described him as “one of the ten keywords of Singapore’s Chinese cultural perspectives”.
In 1992, the National Arts Council introduced the Young Artist Award for outstanding artists aged 35 and below. As of 2023, a total of 178 people have received it.
The Chinese literature recipients include Liang Wern Fook (1992), Chia Joo Ming (1993), Gabriel Wu (1998), Henry Low (1999), Tan Chee Lay (2004), and Ting Kheng Siong (2007).
Liang Wern Fook is one of Singapore’s pioneering xinyao (Mandarin ballads composed by the youth in Singapore). He received the Cultural Medallion for music in 2010. However, he has also made significant contributions to local literature, through his poetry, creative nonfiction and novels.
Gabriel Wu (pen name Wei Tong Que) has penned poetry collections such as Xinruan (Soft Heart), Gudu Zicheng Fengbao (Loneliness Creates Its Own Storm), Ban Cunzai (Half-Existence), and Xingcheng Ai (Formation of Love). He has also written the short story collections Renjian Xiuqi (Elegance in the Human World) and Huoban Leng (Fiery Cold). His works exhibit an aloof style with a resilient touch of critical undertones.
Henry Low is known for poetry collections such as Ruoshi Youqing (Love Hypothesis) and Yong Yizhong Huiyi Pincou Jiao Shenhua (A Myth Pieced Together with Memories), as well as the creative nonfiction collection Zhongshan Weirao (Surrounded by the Mountains). He also edited Xinjiapo de 99 fu Wenxue Fengjing (99 Literary Landscapes of Singapore). He is the President of the Singapore Association of Writers and the Chief Editor of the magazine Xinhua Wenxue (Singapore Chinese Literature).
Tan Chee Lay is a bilingual writer and scholar. He is also known for his poetry and prose, including Landmark Poetics of the Lion City which won the 2018 Singapore Literature Prize. He has edited academic publications and literary anthologies, such as Singathology: 50 New Works by Celebrated Singaporean Writers.
Ting Kheng Siong is the author of the lyric essays collection Wangle Xiashan (Forgot to Descend the Mountain) and the poetry collection Sanshi San Jian (Thirty-Three Rooms). He is the Vice President of the Singapore Association of Writers.
The awarding of the Cultural Medallion and the Young Artist Award means that the Singapore Government has long attached great importance to and concern for local art cultivation. It also encourages Singapore’s artists to continue their efforts and move towards excellence in the field of art, and has a motivating effect for the writers to improve their writing skills and actively create literary classics.
Ini Indexs
Since 1936, more than 100 Chinese-language novels have emerged from Singapore, many of them rich in content and featuring diverse themes. They often reflect the thoughts of local writers narrating past and present events that took place on the island. Their works range from realist to modernist novels; from those with local flavour to those which capture a sense of Southeast Asia. Told using diverse narrative techniques, they are imbued with a sense of their authors’ concern for the region.
Lin Cantian’s (1901–1972) novel Thick Smog, published in 1936, is considered the first novel in the history of Malayan-Chinese literature. It was originally published by Shanghai Life Bookstore and reprinted in Singapore by the Youth Book Company in 1959. The novel is set in a place called Ti Er Guo in northern Malaya in the 1920s and 1930s. It portrays the problems and turmoil of Chinese education at that time, marking the start of a recurring theme in the Chinese novels of Singapore and Malaysia — “Chinese education”. Chinese schools and Nanyang University nurtured Chinese-language novelists, and later became subjects that those writers would revisit time and time again. This can be seen in Feng Shayan’s (1943–2021) The One Chasing the Sun (2003) and You Qin’s The Fragments of a Chinese School Student’s Memories (2013).
Another related theme is identity. Sometimes, during the dialogue between students from Chinese and English schools, there is dramatic tension arising from differences in their values and self-identity. In A Man Like Me (1987), Yeng Pway Ngon (1947–2021) highlights Chinese school students’ feelings of pride and inferiority, as well as their dreams and desires. A sense of identity could also emerge or crumble while a character is growing up, interacting with family, school and society, or while navigating their distance from “the Other”, as seen in Chia Joo Ming’s Exile or Pursuit and You Jin’s Fabulous Whirlpool. This portrayal of identity is a recurring feature in Singapore Chinese literature.
Many Singapore Chinese authors were active in society and concerned about the nation’s development. Political and student movements, wars, and anti-colonialism have been key sources of inspiration. Take for example Mei Hua’s Lion City Chronicles (2000) and Yeng Pway Ngon’s Unrest, which were inspired by political movements; Yuan Dian’s Living Sacrifice (2002), set against the backdrop of student movements; and Miao Xiu’s (1920–1980) Waves of Fire (1950) and The Lost Night (1976), Zhao Rong’s (1920–1987) Malacca Strait (1961); and Liu Jun’s Equatorial Torrent (1993) which portray the wartime suffering and spirit of the people.
Authors have also sought to explore new themes and grow as writers. Some examples are Chia Joo Ming’ historical memoir novel 1644: The Year A Dynasty Was Hanged (2012); Sebastian Sim’s wuxia novel Tianchu Ji: History of Wulin in the Ancient Tang Dynasty (2004); and Zhou Tongquan’s engineering-related Ambitious Blueprint (2015). These works reflect a strong spirit of literary innovation.
Novelists tend to hone their craft as they go along. Between Liu Jun’s Equatorial Torrent and Conch (2002), one notices a progression from mere storytelling to “writing a novel”. The author Chia Joo Ming also strives to reinvent himself, evident in his transition from historical novels to personal growth journey. Meanwhile, famous novelist Yeng Pway Ngon, who died in 2021, was determined to “avoid repeating (himself) where possible”. He borrowed techniques from modernism, Russian literature, as well as the French nouveau roman, and applied them in his writing.
Singapore Chinese novels continue to have a presence in the market, although there are not a lot of them being published. The limited platforms for Singapore Chinese literature, high publishing costs, and a lack of full-time novelists all pose significant challenges. Singapore’s unique Chinese literary environment, however, has nurtured many excellent essayists as well as writers of microfiction and flash fiction. Perhaps these rich, short-form literary works will nourish the wider literary ecosystem and shape its future in ways yet to be seen.
Ini Indexs
Existentialism, the prevailing philosophical belief in 20th century Europe, focuses on the “human individual” as its central tenet. This is depicted in literary works through the portrayal of spiritual loneliness and anxiety, revealing the absurdity and irrationality of the world. Existentialism also explores various “modes of being” such as alienation, emptiness, anxiety, absurdity, death, and the death of God.1
Around the world, authors and their literary lenses are influenced by factors including political backgrounds, social environments, cultural milieu, and personal experiences unique to the individual author. All of these result in different emphases in the manifestation of existentialism in literature.
In Singapore, the 1980s wrought significant upheavals for Chinese-language writers. They faced difficulties such as the closure of Nanyang University (Nantah) and Chinese-medium schools, resulting in predicaments in life. Such spiritual and mental shock led to the emergence of “scar literature” in the 1980s and 1990s.2 These works depict the spirit of the times from a range of narrative perspectives; the literary works spotlight the absurdity of reality, and the alienation and existential anxiety of individuals. Representative works include Ren mu zhi (Jen Mu Chi) by Teo Hee La, Jing you ci shi (This Thing Called Jing) by Liang Wern Fook, and Shanghen jing bu yu (The Injuries Needing Repair) by Xi Ni Er (Chia Hwee Pheng). Portraying the isolation endured by the Chinese-educated community amidst socio-political upheavals, these scar literature stories exemplified the characteristics of existentialist literature.
Among the most prominent works of existentialist literature in Singapore’s Chinese literary scene are the short stories by Yeng Pway Ngon (1947–2021), including Bai niao (White Bird), Bu cunzai de qingren (The Non-existent Lover) and Ji cuo de youjian (Misdirected Mail). Notably, the theme of “otherness” is prevalent in Bai niao (White Bird), widely believed to be influenced by German-language author Franz Kafka’s (1883–1924) The Metamorphosis, a representative work of existentialism. Bu cunzai de qingren (The Non-Existent Lover) is studied by junior college students in Singapore as part of their Chinese Language and Literature curriculum. The story features a first-person narrator who creates Pei Pei, a fictional character for a radio drama, only to find Pei Pei materialise in the narrator’s world. Pei Pei insists on whisking the narrator away as she believes that neither the narrator nor his artistic creations belong in the real world; and true life can only be embraced by leaving reality behind. Similarly, the desire to escape reality is portrayed in Ji cuo de youjian (Misdirected Mail), where the first-person narrator “longed to leave this hellhole” and “must leave before losing (his) sanity”.3 The narrator visits a post office, affixes a stamp on his forehead, and attempts to mail himself to America, but is taken to a mental hospital instead. Collectively, Yeng Pway Ngon’s short story collection encapsulates French existentialist philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre’s (1905–1980) concept of “existence precedes essence”, emphasising the individual’s freedom of consciousness and the determination to strive for freedom of choice in order to manifest one’s true existence.
Toh Lam Huat is another Singaporean Chinese writer whose works were influenced by existentialist philosophy. He revealed in a previous interview that his early worldview was shaped by existentialism.4 This is evident in his novel Boli shijie (A Glass World), which explores aspects of existentialist philosophy that include Sartre’s concept of “being-for-itself” as the mode of existence of consciousness of the self, and “hell is other people”.
Research on existentialist literature in Singapore Chinese literature is still at a nascent stage. It primarily consists of standalone critiques and reviews, with much of the discussion focused on Yeng Pway Ngon’s works. However, existentialism is far from outdated or irrelevant in the Singaporean Chinese literary scene. Singaporean Chinese authors continue to experiment with existentialist concepts in their literary works, even in recent years. For instance, Moh Lee Fair’s 2020 novel, Hua (The Painting), portrays a depressed, down-on-his-luck painter who loses dignity and meaning in life, eventually retreating into a painting in search of utopia. Likewise, Neo Hai Bin’s 2021 collection of short stories, Dahai de ren (The People of the Sea) explores existentialism through various narratives. His short story, Shenhai li de micheng (The Underwater Lost City), interrogates the existence of the city and the self through the imagery of being “lost”.
Most of the Singaporean Chinese narrative fiction discussed above utilise exaggeration and absurdity which are characteristic of existentialist literature. Yet it is the symbolic meaning that lies beyond the writing techniques that deserves more attention, along with the notions of tensions and contradictions between “human” and “spaces of existence” that the authors seek to reveal.
Ini Indexs
Wang Sha (1925–1998), whose real name was Heng Kim Ching, was born and bred in Singapore. He had ancestral roots in Nanyang Village, Chenghai, Chaozhou, and came from an ordinary family in Boat Quay (zab boih khoi ki to the Teochews). After his father died at a young age, Wang Sha, aged 12, sold newspapers with his relatives to supplement his family’s income.
Ye Feng (1932–1995), born Siow Tian Chye in Sungai Way in Selangor, Malaysia, was a Hakka with roots in Dabu, Guangdong. He was adopted as a child by his father’s older brother, and moved with him to Singapore. After completing primary school, he became a goldsmith.
As a teenager, Wang Sha loved watching the Wen Wen Shan Song, Dance and Magic Acrobatic Troupe, which had travelled to Singapore from the United States. He later joined the troupe and started performing with them from port to port. In 1941, Wang Sha joined the Silver Moon Song and Dance Troupe. The troupe had travelled south from China in 1938, arriving in Thailand followed by Malaya and Singapore. The troupe was brimming with talent at the time, and many of its artistes remained in Singapore and became stars in the local getai (literally “song stage”) scene in the 1950s. After World War II, many getai sprang up on the island, and Wang Sha became a major player in the scene.
Ye Feng, meanwhile, had the chance to make a guest appearance on stage when he was a young man. He caught the eye of the person in charge of the Bai Le Hui getai at Happy World amusement park. He invited Ye Feng to Bai Le Hui, kickstarting his career in entertainment. Ye Feng later joined New Life Revue at the New World amusement park, which was where he met Wang Sha. Thus began a lifelong collaboration.
The duo were an instant hit. Their huge popularity was due partly to the comedic contrast in their physical appearance (Wang Sha was skinny, and Ye Feng was chubby) as well as their relatable comedy. During those years, they often toured Singapore and Malaysia and created a dialect comedy craze everywhere they went. Their catchphrase, tee ah, zor nang ah gah ah gah jiu hor (“Oh young man, don’t overdo it”), was widely mimicked.
In 1963, Television Singapura1 was officially launched, and the duo was invited to appear on television. Since Singapore’s early years of nation building, the duo had participated in popular television programmes such as Zai ge zai wu (Singing and Dancing), Qing ge miao wu (Elegant Song and Dance), Hua yue liang xiao (A Beautiful Evening), Sharp Night, Xian ge li ying (Musical Showcase). Their natural knack for performance — and their incorporation of themes and everyday lingo — resonated widely with the public. Their jokes did not just entertain the audience, but educate them on topics such as environmental protection, public hygiene, racial harmony, and more.
The duo’s success in television gave them the chance to develop their careers further. They soon recorded their first-ever dialect comedy record Da nao yezonghui (Havoc at the Nightclub) for Tang Nan Ah Company, which saw massive sales and sparked the trend of dialect comedy records.
In the next decade or so, the duo successively collaborated with different recording companies, recording close to a hundred records. These included Xiao qu xilie (Songs for Laughs Series), Qian cong nali lai (Where to Get Money), He xinnian (Celebrating the New Year), Dui qingjia (To the In-Laws), and Chu cheng ji (Leaving the City).
In the 1970s, Ye Feng and Wang Sha accepted invitations from Television Broadcasts Limited (TVB) to perform in their hit show Enjoy Yourself Tonight — kickstarting their show business career in Hong Kong. But in 1972, they suddenly announced that they were “breaking up” and would no longer perform together. As they continued to expand their careers in Hong Kong, Ye Feng signed a film contract with director John Law Mar’s Kai Fa Film (Hong Kong) Limited Company, while Wang Sha signed with Shaw Brothers (HK) Limited.
Before long, the duo collaborated again in Hong Kong, shooting six films co-produced by John Law Mar and Shaw Brothers, including The Crazy Bumpkins, Return of the Crazy Bumpkins, Big Times for the Crazy Bumpkins, Crazy Bumpkins in Nanyang, The Happy Trio and Thief of Thieves.
Ye Feng also independently starred in films such as The Nutty Crook, The Lucky Bumpkin, The Mad Monk, The Girlie Bar, and Teochew film Farewell to a Warrior. Wang, on top of the well-received Mr Funnybone, starred in Return of the Con Men, Every Man for Himself, The Adventures of Emperor Chien Lung, and two Taiwanese productions, Three Money Hunters and A Good Man Can Bend.
In the 1980s, with their respective film contracts fulfilled, Ye Feng signed with TVB and participated in variety shows such as Ye Ye Special and Lighter Side of Hong Kong, as well as in dramas such as The Brothers and The Bund. Wang Sha, meanwhile, was once invited to host Weekend Variety Show, produced by China Television Company (CTV) in Taiwan. During this period, he also starred in two one-episode dramas produced by Singapore Broadcasting Corporation (SBC), A-Tu and Double Blessing.
In 1985, after some wooing from the newly-established Hoover Live Theatre in Balestier, Wang Sha and Ye Feng once again found themselves on stage together for the first time in 13 years. That same year, the duo recorded a brand-new series of comedy albums titled Happy 99 for Tony Wong Magnetic Media. It was another success.
In 1988, Wang Sha and Ye Feng began accepting invitations to perform during Hungry Ghost Festival getai, making them the highest-paid emcees at the time. Whenever they went on stage, they were greeted with bursts of applause and huge enthusiasm from the audience.
From the 1980s to the early 1990s, the duo performed in many television variety shows, including Duo Showtime on Live from Studio One and SHOWTIME on Songs and Laughs All Around. Of these variety shows, The Coffeeshop on Variety Tonight uniquely captured the joys and frustrations of ordinary folk through comedy and satire.
In 1994, on Marcus Chin’s invitation, the duo filmed their first and only dialect comedy video titled Wang Sha Ye Feng fangyan xieju (Wang Sha and Ye Feng’s Dialect Comedy). It contained new versions of the two masters’ previous works while preserving their style of comedy from 30 years ago, one that mixed Teochew, Cantonese, Hokkien, Mandarin, Malay, and more to reflect the vibrant multilingual spirit of the community.
That year, the duo also accepted an invitation to participate in the NTUC Radio Heart anniversary show Kaleidoscope Heart. This would be the last time they performed on stage together. The following year, on 1 September 1995, Ye Feng died of a heart attack at the age of 63. Wang Sha subsequently announced his retirement from entertainment. On 18 January 1998, he died in hospital at the age of 73 from a deteriorating lung condition.
Wang Sha and Ye Feng are two of Singapore’s most notable and beloved performers. Their shows offered a unique take on Singaporean humour and were a mishmash of different languages and cultures. They were full of local flavour and reflected the ups and downs of ordinary people. Whether it be getai, theatre, television, or film, their decades-long output brought much joy to audiences and struck a chord with them.
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Singapore’s Chinese community is composed of different dialect groups, the main ones being Hokkien, Cantonese, Teochew, and Hakka. Since the founding of modern Singapore in 1819, the combined population of these four major dialect groups has accounted for 90% of the total Chinese population in Singapore. There are also smaller dialect groups including Hainanese, Foochow (Hockchew), Henghua (Hinghwa), Futsing (Hockchia), and Guangxi. In 1911, the Henghua population accounted for 0.9% of the total Chinese population, which increased to 1.0% in 1947, but then decreased to 0.7% in 1980. Despite their small number, they have made significant contributions to Singapore’s economic development and social progress.
As late as 1931, the Henghua people still did not have a separate classification under dialect groups in the census reports. Due to their small population size, they were often registered as Hokkien or categorised as “Others, Not Specified” within the Chinese ethnic group. The migration of Henghua people to Singapore came several decades later than that of the Hokkien, Cantonese, Teochew, and Hakka groups, and their numbers were not substantial. In 1911, the Henghua population in Singapore was only 1,932 people. There were two main reasons for the late arrival of the Henghua people to Singapore. First, their hometown of Putian in the South Chinese province of Fujian lacked good harbours, making overseas migration difficult. Also, the population there was primarily engaged in subsistence farming or fishing activities before migrating to Singapore, and had limited commercial connections with various Southeast Asian regions. The motivation behind the Henghua people’s migration was to improve their own and their family members’ lives, with the hope of returning to their homeland after several years of hard work and savings. However, the majority of these immigrants eventually settled in Singapore. In the early days, Henghua immigrants mainly settled in areas such as Rochor Canal Road, Sungei Road, Weld Road, Arab Street, Ban San Street, and Queen Street. The vicinity of Rochor Canal Road was a central area for the rickshaw industry at the time.
The Henghua people dominated industries and services related to bicycles, automobiles, tram parts, and land transportation. This was not an inevitable historical development. Before this, the Henghua people had no connection to these industries. Their involvement with local land transportation became closely tied to the rise of the rickshaw industry. In 1880, rickshaws were introduced in Singapore. Prior to this, the primary modes of land transportation in Singapore were horse-drawn carts and bullock carts, mainly operated by Hokkien and Cantonese people. Rickshaw pullers were labourers with low incomes, and subjected to high physical demands. The profession was considered humble. Despite this, the rickshaw industry provided the incoming Henghua immigrants with job opportunities under the principle of “picking up what others discard”. The vast majority of rickshaw pullers had little income left after deducting basic living expenses. Like some of the early Chinese immigrants, some rickshaw pullers fell into vices such as visiting brothels, gambling, and smoking opium. Only a small portion of Henghua individuals were able to manage their households frugally and initiate preliminary capital accumulation, which provided them with the opportunity to engage in business. As time progressed, the business activities of the Henghua people in land transportation expanded beyond rickshaws to include tricycles, bicycles, mopeds, cars, taxis, and other related industries. In the 1970s, the Henghua community further diversified into sectors such as finance, banking, real estate development, food and beverage, and insurance.
To uphold and advance the interests of their community, Henghua immigrants in Singapore also established numerous associations based on geographical, kinship, occupational, religious, culture recreational, and educational affiliations. Between 1920 and 1990, the Henghua community established various locality associations, including the Hin Ann Huay Kuan, Phor Tiong Kok Peng Association, Singapore Hock Po Sian Association, and Nanyang Putian Clan Association (now the Singapore Putian Association). The Singapore Jiangdou Wang Clan Association is the only Henghua kinship organisation. In terms of trade associations, some of the more significant ones include the Singapore Cycle & Motor Traders’ Association, Singapore Taxi Transport Association, Singapore Bicycle Dealers’ Association, and Singapore Motor Tyre Dealers Association. In terms of religious beliefs, in 1990, the Henghua community had a total of eight religious associations, among which the Kiew Lee Tong Temple gained particularly widespread recognition. Their once-a-decade Decennial Universal Salvation (Fengjia da pudu) event attracted local and overseas scholars who wished to witness and document this rare religious ritual. In the area of education, the Henghua community established Hong Wen School in 1920, which continues to enjoy a good reputation.
Driven by poverty, the Henghua people left their hometowns in search of a livelihood in Southeast Asia in the early years. Most immigrants initially hoped to work overseas for a few years before returning home, but the outcome turned out to be quite different. Because of their late arrival, smaller numbers, lack of commercial connections, and language barriers, the jobs of many early immigrants were limited to lowly occupations — often in the rickshaw industry, which was generally looked down upon. But by the 1970s, after several generations of hard work, the Henghua community had finally achieved respected positions in various economic sectors. Through the establishment of various associations, the community successfully preserved their social customs, traditions, cuisine, and culture, which in turn contributed to its social and economic development.
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Teochew opera is a regional opera genre that originated in China’s Guangdong province. It is popular in the eastern part of Guangdong, southern Fujian, Hong Kong, and various Chinese communities in Southeast Asia. Chao opera, or Teochew opera, derives its name from its association with Chaozhou and is sung in the Teochew dialect.
Following in the footsteps of the Teochew people who migrated overseas, Teochew opera took root in foreign lands and developed its own distinct local patterns. The earliest recorded mention of Teochew opera in Singapore dates back to 1887 in A Record of the Natural Conditions and Social Customs in Singapore by Li Zhongyu (1853–1927), which states, “There are male and female troupes in the theatres. There are four or five theatres in Da Po (area around South Bridge Road), and one or two in Xiao Po (area around North Bridge Road), all performing Cantonese opera. Occasionally, Hokkien and Teochew operas are also staged.”
It can be inferred that as early as the 19th century, Teochew opera was performed in ceremonies to honour deities in Chinese temples in Singapore. From this perspective, the history of Teochew opera in Singapore spans nearly 200 years.
According to the Directory of Associations in Singapore (1982–1983), the professional Teochew opera troupes during the pre-war and early post-war period included Lau Sai Poh Hong, Lau Sai Thor Guan, Tong Jit Kee Hiang, Lau San Chia Soon, Lau Ee Lye Choon, Lau Tong Chia Soon, Lau Poh Soon Heng, Lau Sai Yong Hong, Lau Gek Lau Choon, Sin Yong Hua Heng, San Chia Soon Hiang, Tong Sai Thor Guan, Tong Jit Tiang Hiang, Lau Jit Kee Hiang, Lau Gek Choon Hiang, Lau Chia Thian Hiang, and others.
Later, there were also Chit Hoon Tep Kek Tuan, Sin Jit Tian Chye Troupe, Teo Goy Troupe, Tok Kang Troupe, and Sin Thor Guan Choon, and finally, Lau Poo Gwee Choon and Kim Eng Teochew Opera Troupe.
In the 19th century, Teochew opera performances in Singapore were often held in front of temples or along the streets, earning the name of street opera. Performances often took place in front of Teochew temples such as Yueh Hai Ching Temple (Wak Hai Cheng Bio in Teochew) and areas inhabited by the Teochew community, including Boat Quay (zab boih khoi ki), Chulia Street (sua kia deng), Circular Road (zab boih goin ao), Robinson Road (lau pa sat kau), Fish Street, Fisher Street, River Valley Road, and North Boat Quay.
Later, Teochew opera performances also took place in relatively fixed venues such as theatres, amusement parks, and opera houses. At that time, the four major Teochew opera theatres were Ee Hng, Tiat Hng, Tong Le Yuan, and Yong Le Yuan.
In the early 20th century, as Singapore’s economy gradually developed and standards of living improved, there was ample opportunity for the development of theatre. Many Teochew opera troupes came to Singapore to perform between the 1920s and 1940s, touring various places in Nanyang and revitalising the Teochew opera stage in the region.
In the 1930s, the Teochew opera stage was exceptionally lively. Each opera troupe averaged about 60 members, and most operators were well-off. There was often intense competition among troupes, with each employing various tactics to attract audiences.
Although Teochew opera performances were an important source of entertainment for Teochew people, early Chinese society generally looked down on actors. Many considered watching vernacular drama as demeaning to their status, and a sign that one lacked refinement. As a result, they preferred the more refined Han opera (hanju). Some wealthy merchants and nobles in the local community organised amateur drama societies mainly focused on performing Han opera, finding pleasure and relaxation in this activity. As a result, amateur drama groups such as the Er Woo Amateur Musical & Dramatic Association, Lak Aik Amateur Musical & Drama Association, Thau Yong Amateur Musical Association, and Chenh Hua Amateur Musical Association emerged. These amateur drama groups not only engaged in musical performances for leisure, but also took to the stage to perform, often organising charity performances to raise funds for disaster relief.
From the late 1950s to early 1960s, local Teochew opera entered a period of prosperity. In September 1959, the first China Teochew opera film The Burning of the Riverside Tower was screened in Singapore, causing a sensation. Within the next five years, So Luk Neung, A Woman Sues Her Own Husband, Chen San and Wu Niang, Swallows Greet the Spring, Hang Kang Huay Ser Kim, The Story of Lau Meng Chu, and others were brought to Singapore and were well-received.
Local traditional Teochew opera troupes began to emulate Teochew opera films, bringing the silver screen to the stage. Not only did many local amateur literary and musical societies switch to performing Teochew opera, amateur drama societies such as Nam Hwa Amateur Musical & Dramatic Association (now Nam Hwa Opera) also emerged in this environment in 1963.
As time passed, Teochew opera in Singapore faced challenges brought about by modernisation and cultural diversification. Nevertheless, there are still traditional Teochew opera troupes and actors who continue to develop and pass on this art form.
There are only a few active professional Teochew opera troupes left, including the Lau Sai Thor Guan, which was established in 1864. Lau Sai Thor Guan was the largest and most reputable troupe in the local Teochew opera scene in the 20th century. The famous director Lim Joo Liak (1906–1981), touxian player Lim Bak Cheow, male lead Chua Poh Choo, and female lead Lee Siew Lang were all key figures in the opera troupe.
In 2017, former TV personality Nick Shen took over Lau Sai Thor Guan and found new audiences for its performances in Chinese temples, leading the troupe’s transformation and the continuation of its legacy.
Among the other currently active amateur Teochew Opera groups, Nam Hwa Opera, which renamed itself at the end of 2018, stands out. It was awarded the Singapore Chinese Cultural Contribution Award (Group Category) in 2023. Under the leadership of its president Toh Lim Mok, Nam Hwa has undergone a systematic transformation, actively nurturing new talents and cultivating young opera performers. One of its young actors Tan Wei Tian was also awarded the New Talent Award in the 2016 Singapore Chinese Opera Orchid Awards by the Singapore Chinese Opera Institute, and currently serves as Nam Hwa’s artistic director.
