Before World War II, most Chinese-medium schools in Southeast Asia used textbooks published by The Commercial Press and Chung Hwa Book Company, which were founded in Shanghai. These textbooks were originally created for students in China, with the goal of imparting new knowledge in various subjects and nurturing the character of Chinese nationals. They did not take into account factors such as the climate, local produce, lifestyle habits, customs, and social systems of the places where overseas Chinese lived. It was not until the early 1930s that textbooks specifically designed for students in Southeast Asia were introduced. These were known as “textbooks suitable for use by overseas Chinese in Nanyang” (henceforth “suitable for Nanyang” textbooks).

“Suitable for Nanyang” textbooks were largely adapted from selected texts of the New Curriculum Standard Textbook series published by Chung Hwa Book Company, and the Reviving Educational Textbook series published by The Commercial Press. Most of the content retained the selected texts and illustrations from the textbooks for China, with a small portion of the content or illustrations replaced with depictions of the local culture and customs of Nanyang. This adaptation aimed to align with the educational goals of the overseas Chinese schools (qiaoxiao), which emphasised “cultivating enriched living in Nanyang and improving relations between various ethnic groups”.

From ‘suitable for Nanyang’ to published in Nanyang

Meanwhile, some local publishers such as Chung Hing Publishing Company, Nanyang Book Company, World Book Company, and Shanghai Book Company began participating in the publication of textbooks for the Chinese-medium schools, sharing the market for Southeast Asian Chinese school textbooks with publishers from China. These local publishers expanded their presence by establishing branches in major Southeast Asian cities such as Jakarta, Surabaya, Kuala Lumpur, Penang, Malacca, and Yangon. They distributed or published Chinese school textbooks that were suitable for their respective local context.

The series of textbooks published in Singapore, known as Singapore imprint of “Nanyang textbooks” included those for Chinese language, general knowledge, and civic education. They were characterised by a Nanyang flavour, incorporating the familiar environment and language context of Malayan students into their content.

Based on research on the collections in the six major libraries in Singapore and Malaysia, it is estimated that there were more than 200 different types of pre-war China-imprint textbooks suitable for overseas Chinese in Nanyang as well as Nanyang-imprint (especially the Singapore imprint) textbooks. These textbooks covered a wide range of subjects, including Chinese language, English language, general knowledge, civic education, nature, natural science, letter writing, applied writing, model writing, composition, arithmetic, abacus, history, geography, and other subjects. The teaching materials included textbooks, teaching methods, teacher preparation books, teaching guides, manuals, assessment books, and materials for exam preparation.

These educational resources were available for various levels of education from kindergarten to high school, ensuring comprehensive coverage of educational needs. Most of these textbooks bore labels such as “Nanyang”, “Nanyang Overseas Chinese” (Nanyang huaqiao), and “Suitable for use by overseas Chinese in Nanyang” (Nanyang qiaoxiao shiyong) on their covers.

The pre-war and early post-war Nanyang textbooks published by both China and local publishers primarily showcased the local Southeast Asian flavour in the content and illustrations of certain texts in the Chinese language (Mandarin), general knowledge, civic education, history, and geography textbooks. For instance, in three lesson texts of Reviving Chinese Language Textbook for lower primary, Book 21 — meant for Nanyang overseas Chinese primary school students and edited by Shen Baiying (1897–1992) and others from The Commercial Press — content such as “harvesting barley” and “willow branches”, was replaced with examples familiar to Nanyang students, such as coconut trees, traveller’s palms, and beans.

Coconut trees, bananas, and traveller’s palms became representative illustrations of Nanyang culture in textbooks from The Commercial Press and the Chung Hwa series. Some of these “Suitable for Nanyang” textbooks retained the content from the original China editions, while incorporating coconut trees as background illustrations.

Nanyang Book Company’s advertisement on their Nanyang textbook series for primary schools, 1947, in Zhongyi: Zhongguo gewu juyishe Malai xiya lüxing gongyan tekan [Special Publication of China Song, Dance and Drama Company’s Malaysian Trip and Performances]. From Digital Gems, NUS Libraries Special Collection.
The Commercial Press’ Fuxing guoyu jiaokeshu [Reviving Chinese Language Textbook], Primary Level Book 3, 1947. National Museum of Singapore Collection, courtesy of National Heritage Board.
Nanyang Book Company’s Nanyang changshi jiaokeshu [Nanyang General Knowledge Textbook], Lower Primary Level Book 7, 1948. Gift of Sim Siew Gaik, National Museum of Singapore Collection, courtesy of National Heritage Board.

Elements of Nanyang

China-written and Singapore-published Nanyang textbooks (Singapore imprint of Nanyang textbooks) typically exhibit a stronger local character and show greater consideration for local topics compared to the China-imprint textbooks. For example, in one lesson text of the Nanyang Book Company’s Nanyang Civic Education Textbook for lower primary, Book 1,2 there is an illustration featuring both the Chinese and British flags hanging side by side. The accompanying text instructs students to respect the flags.

The upper-primary lesson texts like “The People of Malaya” and “Harmony Among Ethnic Groups” offer more detailed and relevant content to the Nanyang context compared to Chung Hwa’s lesson text on “Malay Residences”.

Similarly, in the Nanyang General Knowledge Textbook,3 the lesson texts discuss local fruits such as bananas, coconuts, and durians, along with references to the indigenous people and animals in the tropical rainforests. These lesson texts also frequently incorporate local vocabulary such as pasar (market) and other terms familiar in Nanyang. For example, in the Shanghai Book Company’s Modern Chinese Language Textbook, Book 3 published in Singapore,4 Lesson 20, “Nanyang is Truly a Wonderful Place”, the lesson text displays the local character of Nanyang with the encouragement “to make Nanyang one’s homeland”.

The text reads, “Singing, singing, listen to my song, Nanyang is truly a wonderful place. The weather is hot all year round. There is no need for extra layers of clothes even in winter. No snow, no frost, trees grow quickly, with plenty of delicious fruits. Chinese in Nanyang, let us make Nanyang our homeland. Singing, singing, listen to my song, Nanyang is truly a wonderful place.”

Whether the Nanyang textbooks were written and published by China publishers or written in China and published locally, the emphasis was generally on a China-centric perspective, as Chinese-medium schools in Nanyang continued to be seen as “overseas Chinese schools”. The inclusion of “Nanyang characteristics” in these textbooks was merely an adjustment to align with the conditions of the places where the overseas Chinese community resided, making the content more relatable to the students and facilitating learning.

It was only in the post-1950s era, when Singapore and Malaya progressed towards autonomy and nationhood, that there was a shift in the focus of textbooks. To foster Chinese students’ loyalty to Malaya as their homeland, textbooks began to emphasise local awareness and incorporate a Malayan aspect into their content.