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Over the years, more than a dozen Chinese-language writers in Singapore have received the Cultural Medallion and the Young Artist Award, which are presented by the National Arts Council.
The Cultural Medallion, Singapore’s highest award for culture and arts, was initiated in 1979 by Singapore’s then-Acting Minister for Culture Ong Teng Cheong (1936–2002). The annual award recognises those who have made significant contributions to the country’s arts and cultural landscape. As of 2023, it has been awarded to 135 artists.
The nine Chinese writers who received the Cultural Medallion are Wong Meng Voon (1981), Wong Yoon Wah (1986), Zhou Can (1990), Dan Ying (1996), Yeng Pway Ngon (2003), Xi Ni Er (2008), You Jin (2009), Lin Gao (2015), and Chia Joo Ming (2021).
Wong Meng Voon (pen name Meng Yi) is known for his short stories and microfiction. He is one of the 14 founding members of the Singapore Association of Writers and served as its president for 18 years. In the 1990s, he played a significant role in promoting the creation and theoretical research of microfiction.
Wong Yoon Wah was the president of the Singapore Association of Writers for 12 years. A scholar of Chinese literature as well as a writer, his literary philosophy is that each of the four official languages in Singapore has its own rich literary tradition, and combined with the experiences unique to Singapore, it forms a distinct local literary tradition.
Zhou Can (Chew Kok Chang) navigates the fields of poetry, creative nonfiction, fiction, children’s literature, and literary criticism. His poems are generally simple and easy to understand. As a prolific writer, he has written numerous books of creative and critical literature. He is also one of the founding members of the Singapore Association of Writers and is its former Vice President in the 1970s.
Dan Ying (Lew Poo Chan) writes poetry and prose. Her poetry expresses the subtle emotions of women as well as a strong, assertive spirit. Her prose is emotionally rich and her narrative techniques are adept, portraying the pure, beautiful aspects of human nature.
Yeng Pway Ngon (1947–2021) had more than 20 published works, including poetry collections, novels, plays, essay collections, and commentaries. His works are imbued with a strong sense of critical consciousness. He founded the magazines Chazuo (Teahouse) and Jiechu (Contact) in 1969 and 1991 respectively. He also established Grassroots Book Room, one of Singapore’s Chinese bookstores, in 1995. He passed away in 2021 due to illness.
Xi Ni Er (Chia Hwee Pheng) served as the president of the Singapore Association of Writers for 12 years. He captures the vulnerabilities of human nature and social anomalies in works ranging from poetry to microfiction. Some of his works constitute part of the Singapore’s Scar Literature. His writings on the Vietnam War, World War II, and Korean War are imbued with a strong anti-war consciousness.
You Jin (Tham Yew Chin) writes novels, creative nonfiction, and travelogues. She has authored more than 200 works, of which five have been translated into English, along with an essay collection translated into Indonesian. Her works have been selected as extracurricular reading materials by numerous schools in Singapore and have become research texts for graduate students at several universities.
Lin Gao (Lim Hung Chang) writes lyric essays, microfiction, poetry, and literary criticism. His works are subtle and restrained, often analysed the depth of human nature between casual statements and dialogues. He has served as the Vice President of the Singapore Association of Writers and has been active in the Ministry of Education’s Author-in-Residence Programme for many years.
Chia Joo Ming often explores different themes in his works. His works possess a profound historical sense, coupled with innovative ideas and a critical spirit. He had served as a sub-editor of Lianhe Zaobao for many years. Harvard University scholar David Wang Der-wei has described him as “one of the ten keywords of Singapore’s Chinese cultural perspectives”.
In 1992, the National Arts Council introduced the Young Artist Award for outstanding artists aged 35 and below. As of 2023, a total of 178 people have received it.
The Chinese literature recipients include Liang Wern Fook (1992), Chia Joo Ming (1993), Gabriel Wu (1998), Henry Low (1999), Tan Chee Lay (2004), and Ting Kheng Siong (2007).
Liang Wern Fook is one of Singapore’s pioneering xinyao (Mandarin ballads composed by the youth in Singapore). He received the Cultural Medallion for music in 2010. However, he has also made significant contributions to local literature, through his poetry, creative nonfiction and novels.
Gabriel Wu (pen name Wei Tong Que) has penned poetry collections such as Xinruan (Soft Heart), Gudu Zicheng Fengbao (Loneliness Creates Its Own Storm), Ban Cunzai (Half-Existence), and Xingcheng Ai (Formation of Love). He has also written the short story collections Renjian Xiuqi (Elegance in the Human World) and Huoban Leng (Fiery Cold). His works exhibit an aloof style with a resilient touch of critical undertones.
Henry Low is known for poetry collections such as Ruoshi Youqing (Love Hypothesis) and Yong Yizhong Huiyi Pincou Jiao Shenhua (A Myth Pieced Together with Memories), as well as the creative nonfiction collection Zhongshan Weirao (Surrounded by the Mountains). He also edited Xinjiapo de 99 fu Wenxue Fengjing (99 Literary Landscapes of Singapore). He is the President of the Singapore Association of Writers and the Chief Editor of the magazine Xinhua Wenxue (Singapore Chinese Literature).
Tan Chee Lay is a bilingual writer and scholar. He is also known for his poetry and prose, including Landmark Poetics of the Lion City which won the 2018 Singapore Literature Prize. He has edited academic publications and literary anthologies, such as Singathology: 50 New Works by Celebrated Singaporean Writers.
Ting Kheng Siong is the author of the lyric essays collection Wangle Xiashan (Forgot to Descend the Mountain) and the poetry collection Sanshi San Jian (Thirty-Three Rooms). He is the Vice President of the Singapore Association of Writers.
The awarding of the Cultural Medallion and the Young Artist Award means that the Singapore Government has long attached great importance to and concern for local art cultivation. It also encourages Singapore’s artists to continue their efforts and move towards excellence in the field of art, and has a motivating effect for the writers to improve their writing skills and actively create literary classics.
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Since 1936, more than 100 Chinese-language novels have emerged from Singapore, many of them rich in content and featuring diverse themes. They often reflect the thoughts of local writers narrating past and present events that took place on the island. Their works range from realist to modernist novels; from those with local flavour to those which capture a sense of Southeast Asia. Told using diverse narrative techniques, they are imbued with a sense of their authors’ concern for the region.
Lin Cantian’s (1901–1972) novel Thick Smog, published in 1936, is considered the first novel in the history of Malayan-Chinese literature. It was originally published by Shanghai Life Bookstore and reprinted in Singapore by the Youth Book Company in 1959. The novel is set in a place called Ti Er Guo in northern Malaya in the 1920s and 1930s. It portrays the problems and turmoil of Chinese education at that time, marking the start of a recurring theme in the Chinese novels of Singapore and Malaysia — “Chinese education”. Chinese schools and Nanyang University nurtured Chinese-language novelists, and later became subjects that those writers would revisit time and time again. This can be seen in Feng Shayan’s (1943–2021) The One Chasing the Sun (2003) and You Qin’s The Fragments of a Chinese School Student’s Memories (2013).
Another related theme is identity. Sometimes, during the dialogue between students from Chinese and English schools, there is dramatic tension arising from differences in their values and self-identity. In A Man Like Me (1987), Yeng Pway Ngon (1947–2021) highlights Chinese school students’ feelings of pride and inferiority, as well as their dreams and desires. A sense of identity could also emerge or crumble while a character is growing up, interacting with family, school and society, or while navigating their distance from “the Other”, as seen in Chia Joo Ming’s Exile or Pursuit and You Jin’s Fabulous Whirlpool. This portrayal of identity is a recurring feature in Singapore Chinese literature.
Many Singapore Chinese authors were active in society and concerned about the nation’s development. Political and student movements, wars, and anti-colonialism have been key sources of inspiration. Take for example Mei Hua’s Lion City Chronicles (2000) and Yeng Pway Ngon’s Unrest, which were inspired by political movements; Yuan Dian’s Living Sacrifice (2002), set against the backdrop of student movements; and Miao Xiu’s (1920–1980) Waves of Fire (1950) and The Lost Night (1976), Zhao Rong’s (1920–1987) Malacca Strait (1961); and Liu Jun’s Equatorial Torrent (1993) which portray the wartime suffering and spirit of the people.
Authors have also sought to explore new themes and grow as writers. Some examples are Chia Joo Ming’ historical memoir novel 1644: The Year A Dynasty Was Hanged (2012); Sebastian Sim’s wuxia novel Tianchu Ji: History of Wulin in the Ancient Tang Dynasty (2004); and Zhou Tongquan’s engineering-related Ambitious Blueprint (2015). These works reflect a strong spirit of literary innovation.
Novelists tend to hone their craft as they go along. Between Liu Jun’s Equatorial Torrent and Conch (2002), one notices a progression from mere storytelling to “writing a novel”. The author Chia Joo Ming also strives to reinvent himself, evident in his transition from historical novels to personal growth journey. Meanwhile, famous novelist Yeng Pway Ngon, who died in 2021, was determined to “avoid repeating (himself) where possible”. He borrowed techniques from modernism, Russian literature, as well as the French nouveau roman, and applied them in his writing.
Singapore Chinese novels continue to have a presence in the market, although there are not a lot of them being published. The limited platforms for Singapore Chinese literature, high publishing costs, and a lack of full-time novelists all pose significant challenges. Singapore’s unique Chinese literary environment, however, has nurtured many excellent essayists as well as writers of microfiction and flash fiction. Perhaps these rich, short-form literary works will nourish the wider literary ecosystem and shape its future in ways yet to be seen.
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Existentialism, the prevailing philosophical belief in 20th century Europe, focuses on the “human individual” as its central tenet. This is depicted in literary works through the portrayal of spiritual loneliness and anxiety, revealing the absurdity and irrationality of the world. Existentialism also explores various “modes of being” such as alienation, emptiness, anxiety, absurdity, death, and the death of God.1
Around the world, authors and their literary lenses are influenced by factors including political backgrounds, social environments, cultural milieu, and personal experiences unique to the individual author. All of these result in different emphases in the manifestation of existentialism in literature.
In Singapore, the 1980s wrought significant upheavals for Chinese-language writers. They faced difficulties such as the closure of Nanyang University (Nantah) and Chinese-medium schools, resulting in predicaments in life. Such spiritual and mental shock led to the emergence of “scar literature” in the 1980s and 1990s.2 These works depict the spirit of the times from a range of narrative perspectives; the literary works spotlight the absurdity of reality, and the alienation and existential anxiety of individuals. Representative works include Ren mu zhi (Jen Mu Chi) by Teo Hee La, Jing you ci shi (This Thing Called Jing) by Liang Wern Fook, and Shanghen jing bu yu (The Injuries Needing Repair) by Xi Ni Er (Chia Hwee Pheng). Portraying the isolation endured by the Chinese-educated community amidst socio-political upheavals, these scar literature stories exemplified the characteristics of existentialist literature.
Among the most prominent works of existentialist literature in Singapore’s Chinese literary scene are the short stories by Yeng Pway Ngon (1947–2021), including Bai niao (White Bird), Bu cunzai de qingren (The Non-existent Lover) and Ji cuo de youjian (Misdirected Mail). Notably, the theme of “otherness” is prevalent in Bai niao (White Bird), widely believed to be influenced by German-language author Franz Kafka’s (1883–1924) The Metamorphosis, a representative work of existentialism. Bu cunzai de qingren (The Non-Existent Lover) is studied by junior college students in Singapore as part of their Chinese Language and Literature curriculum. The story features a first-person narrator who creates Pei Pei, a fictional character for a radio drama, only to find Pei Pei materialise in the narrator’s world. Pei Pei insists on whisking the narrator away as she believes that neither the narrator nor his artistic creations belong in the real world; and true life can only be embraced by leaving reality behind. Similarly, the desire to escape reality is portrayed in Ji cuo de youjian (Misdirected Mail), where the first-person narrator “longed to leave this hellhole” and “must leave before losing (his) sanity”.3 The narrator visits a post office, affixes a stamp on his forehead, and attempts to mail himself to America, but is taken to a mental hospital instead. Collectively, Yeng Pway Ngon’s short story collection encapsulates French existentialist philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre’s (1905–1980) concept of “existence precedes essence”, emphasising the individual’s freedom of consciousness and the determination to strive for freedom of choice in order to manifest one’s true existence.
Toh Lam Huat is another Singaporean Chinese writer whose works were influenced by existentialist philosophy. He revealed in a previous interview that his early worldview was shaped by existentialism.4 This is evident in his novel Boli shijie (A Glass World), which explores aspects of existentialist philosophy that include Sartre’s concept of “being-for-itself” as the mode of existence of consciousness of the self, and “hell is other people”.
Research on existentialist literature in Singapore Chinese literature is still at a nascent stage. It primarily consists of standalone critiques and reviews, with much of the discussion focused on Yeng Pway Ngon’s works. However, existentialism is far from outdated or irrelevant in the Singaporean Chinese literary scene. Singaporean Chinese authors continue to experiment with existentialist concepts in their literary works, even in recent years. For instance, Moh Lee Fair’s 2020 novel, Hua (The Painting), portrays a depressed, down-on-his-luck painter who loses dignity and meaning in life, eventually retreating into a painting in search of utopia. Likewise, Neo Hai Bin’s 2021 collection of short stories, Dahai de ren (The People of the Sea) explores existentialism through various narratives. His short story, Shenhai li de micheng (The Underwater Lost City), interrogates the existence of the city and the self through the imagery of being “lost”.
Most of the Singaporean Chinese narrative fiction discussed above utilise exaggeration and absurdity which are characteristic of existentialist literature. Yet it is the symbolic meaning that lies beyond the writing techniques that deserves more attention, along with the notions of tensions and contradictions between “human” and “spaces of existence” that the authors seek to reveal.
Ini Indexs
Wang Sha (1925–1998), whose real name was Heng Kim Ching, was born and bred in Singapore. He had ancestral roots in Nanyang Village, Chenghai, Chaozhou, and came from an ordinary family in Boat Quay (zab boih khoi ki to the Teochews). After his father died at a young age, Wang Sha, aged 12, sold newspapers with his relatives to supplement his family’s income.
Ye Feng (1932–1995), born Siow Tian Chye in Sungai Way in Selangor, Malaysia, was a Hakka with roots in Dabu, Guangdong. He was adopted as a child by his father’s older brother, and moved with him to Singapore. After completing primary school, he became a goldsmith.
As a teenager, Wang Sha loved watching the Wen Wen Shan Song, Dance and Magic Acrobatic Troupe, which had travelled to Singapore from the United States. He later joined the troupe and started performing with them from port to port. In 1941, Wang Sha joined the Silver Moon Song and Dance Troupe. The troupe had travelled south from China in 1938, arriving in Thailand followed by Malaya and Singapore. The troupe was brimming with talent at the time, and many of its artistes remained in Singapore and became stars in the local getai (literally “song stage”) scene in the 1950s. After World War II, many getai sprang up on the island, and Wang Sha became a major player in the scene.
Ye Feng, meanwhile, had the chance to make a guest appearance on stage when he was a young man. He caught the eye of the person in charge of the Bai Le Hui getai at Happy World amusement park. He invited Ye Feng to Bai Le Hui, kickstarting his career in entertainment. Ye Feng later joined New Life Revue at the New World amusement park, which was where he met Wang Sha. Thus began a lifelong collaboration.
The duo were an instant hit. Their huge popularity was due partly to the comedic contrast in their physical appearance (Wang Sha was skinny, and Ye Feng was chubby) as well as their relatable comedy. During those years, they often toured Singapore and Malaysia and created a dialect comedy craze everywhere they went. Their catchphrase, tee ah, zor nang ah gah ah gah jiu hor (“Oh young man, don’t overdo it”), was widely mimicked.
In 1963, Television Singapura1 was officially launched, and the duo was invited to appear on television. Since Singapore’s early years of nation building, the duo had participated in popular television programmes such as Zai ge zai wu (Singing and Dancing), Qing ge miao wu (Elegant Song and Dance), Hua yue liang xiao (A Beautiful Evening), Sharp Night, Xian ge li ying (Musical Showcase). Their natural knack for performance — and their incorporation of themes and everyday lingo — resonated widely with the public. Their jokes did not just entertain the audience, but educate them on topics such as environmental protection, public hygiene, racial harmony, and more.
The duo’s success in television gave them the chance to develop their careers further. They soon recorded their first-ever dialect comedy record Da nao yezonghui (Havoc at the Nightclub) for Tang Nan Ah Company, which saw massive sales and sparked the trend of dialect comedy records.
In the next decade or so, the duo successively collaborated with different recording companies, recording close to a hundred records. These included Xiao qu xilie (Songs for Laughs Series), Qian cong nali lai (Where to Get Money), He xinnian (Celebrating the New Year), Dui qingjia (To the In-Laws), and Chu cheng ji (Leaving the City).
In the 1970s, Ye Feng and Wang Sha accepted invitations from Television Broadcasts Limited (TVB) to perform in their hit show Enjoy Yourself Tonight — kickstarting their show business career in Hong Kong. But in 1972, they suddenly announced that they were “breaking up” and would no longer perform together. As they continued to expand their careers in Hong Kong, Ye Feng signed a film contract with director John Law Mar’s Kai Fa Film (Hong Kong) Limited Company, while Wang Sha signed with Shaw Brothers (HK) Limited.
Before long, the duo collaborated again in Hong Kong, shooting six films co-produced by John Law Mar and Shaw Brothers, including The Crazy Bumpkins, Return of the Crazy Bumpkins, Big Times for the Crazy Bumpkins, Crazy Bumpkins in Nanyang, The Happy Trio and Thief of Thieves.
Ye Feng also independently starred in films such as The Nutty Crook, The Lucky Bumpkin, The Mad Monk, The Girlie Bar, and Teochew film Farewell to a Warrior. Wang, on top of the well-received Mr Funnybone, starred in Return of the Con Men, Every Man for Himself, The Adventures of Emperor Chien Lung, and two Taiwanese productions, Three Money Hunters and A Good Man Can Bend.
In the 1980s, with their respective film contracts fulfilled, Ye Feng signed with TVB and participated in variety shows such as Ye Ye Special and Lighter Side of Hong Kong, as well as in dramas such as The Brothers and The Bund. Wang Sha, meanwhile, was once invited to host Weekend Variety Show, produced by China Television Company (CTV) in Taiwan. During this period, he also starred in two one-episode dramas produced by Singapore Broadcasting Corporation (SBC), A-Tu and Double Blessing.
In 1985, after some wooing from the newly-established Hoover Live Theatre in Balestier, Wang Sha and Ye Feng once again found themselves on stage together for the first time in 13 years. That same year, the duo recorded a brand-new series of comedy albums titled Happy 99 for Tony Wong Magnetic Media. It was another success.
In 1988, Wang Sha and Ye Feng began accepting invitations to perform during Hungry Ghost Festival getai, making them the highest-paid emcees at the time. Whenever they went on stage, they were greeted with bursts of applause and huge enthusiasm from the audience.
From the 1980s to the early 1990s, the duo performed in many television variety shows, including Duo Showtime on Live from Studio One and SHOWTIME on Songs and Laughs All Around. Of these variety shows, The Coffeeshop on Variety Tonight uniquely captured the joys and frustrations of ordinary folk through comedy and satire.
In 1994, on Marcus Chin’s invitation, the duo filmed their first and only dialect comedy video titled Wang Sha Ye Feng fangyan xieju (Wang Sha and Ye Feng’s Dialect Comedy). It contained new versions of the two masters’ previous works while preserving their style of comedy from 30 years ago, one that mixed Teochew, Cantonese, Hokkien, Mandarin, Malay, and more to reflect the vibrant multilingual spirit of the community.
That year, the duo also accepted an invitation to participate in the NTUC Radio Heart anniversary show Kaleidoscope Heart. This would be the last time they performed on stage together. The following year, on 1 September 1995, Ye Feng died of a heart attack at the age of 63. Wang Sha subsequently announced his retirement from entertainment. On 18 January 1998, he died in hospital at the age of 73 from a deteriorating lung condition.
Wang Sha and Ye Feng are two of Singapore’s most notable and beloved performers. Their shows offered a unique take on Singaporean humour and were a mishmash of different languages and cultures. They were full of local flavour and reflected the ups and downs of ordinary people. Whether it be getai, theatre, television, or film, their decades-long output brought much joy to audiences and struck a chord with them.
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Singapore’s Chinese community is composed of different dialect groups, the main ones being Hokkien, Cantonese, Teochew, and Hakka. Since the founding of modern Singapore in 1819, the combined population of these four major dialect groups has accounted for 90% of the total Chinese population in Singapore. There are also smaller dialect groups including Hainanese, Foochow (Hockchew), Henghua (Hinghwa), Futsing (Hockchia), and Guangxi. In 1911, the Henghua population accounted for 0.9% of the total Chinese population, which increased to 1.0% in 1947, but then decreased to 0.7% in 1980. Despite their small number, they have made significant contributions to Singapore’s economic development and social progress.
As late as 1931, the Henghua people still did not have a separate classification under dialect groups in the census reports. Due to their small population size, they were often registered as Hokkien or categorised as “Others, Not Specified” within the Chinese ethnic group. The migration of Henghua people to Singapore came several decades later than that of the Hokkien, Cantonese, Teochew, and Hakka groups, and their numbers were not substantial. In 1911, the Henghua population in Singapore was only 1,932 people. There were two main reasons for the late arrival of the Henghua people to Singapore. First, their hometown of Putian in the South Chinese province of Fujian lacked good harbours, making overseas migration difficult. Also, the population there was primarily engaged in subsistence farming or fishing activities before migrating to Singapore, and had limited commercial connections with various Southeast Asian regions. The motivation behind the Henghua people’s migration was to improve their own and their family members’ lives, with the hope of returning to their homeland after several years of hard work and savings. However, the majority of these immigrants eventually settled in Singapore. In the early days, Henghua immigrants mainly settled in areas such as Rochor Canal Road, Sungei Road, Weld Road, Arab Street, Ban San Street, and Queen Street. The vicinity of Rochor Canal Road was a central area for the rickshaw industry at the time.
The Henghua people dominated industries and services related to bicycles, automobiles, tram parts, and land transportation. This was not an inevitable historical development. Before this, the Henghua people had no connection to these industries. Their involvement with local land transportation became closely tied to the rise of the rickshaw industry. In 1880, rickshaws were introduced in Singapore. Prior to this, the primary modes of land transportation in Singapore were horse-drawn carts and bullock carts, mainly operated by Hokkien and Cantonese people. Rickshaw pullers were labourers with low incomes, and subjected to high physical demands. The profession was considered humble. Despite this, the rickshaw industry provided the incoming Henghua immigrants with job opportunities under the principle of “picking up what others discard”. The vast majority of rickshaw pullers had little income left after deducting basic living expenses. Like some of the early Chinese immigrants, some rickshaw pullers fell into vices such as visiting brothels, gambling, and smoking opium. Only a small portion of Henghua individuals were able to manage their households frugally and initiate preliminary capital accumulation, which provided them with the opportunity to engage in business. As time progressed, the business activities of the Henghua people in land transportation expanded beyond rickshaws to include tricycles, bicycles, mopeds, cars, taxis, and other related industries. In the 1970s, the Henghua community further diversified into sectors such as finance, banking, real estate development, food and beverage, and insurance.
To uphold and advance the interests of their community, Henghua immigrants in Singapore also established numerous associations based on geographical, kinship, occupational, religious, culture recreational, and educational affiliations. Between 1920 and 1990, the Henghua community established various locality associations, including the Hin Ann Huay Kuan, Phor Tiong Kok Peng Association, Singapore Hock Po Sian Association, and Nanyang Putian Clan Association (now the Singapore Putian Association). The Singapore Jiangdou Wang Clan Association is the only Henghua kinship organisation. In terms of trade associations, some of the more significant ones include the Singapore Cycle & Motor Traders’ Association, Singapore Taxi Transport Association, Singapore Bicycle Dealers’ Association, and Singapore Motor Tyre Dealers Association. In terms of religious beliefs, in 1990, the Henghua community had a total of eight religious associations, among which the Kiew Lee Tong Temple gained particularly widespread recognition. Their once-a-decade Decennial Universal Salvation (Fengjia da pudu) event attracted local and overseas scholars who wished to witness and document this rare religious ritual. In the area of education, the Henghua community established Hong Wen School in 1920, which continues to enjoy a good reputation.
Driven by poverty, the Henghua people left their hometowns in search of a livelihood in Southeast Asia in the early years. Most immigrants initially hoped to work overseas for a few years before returning home, but the outcome turned out to be quite different. Because of their late arrival, smaller numbers, lack of commercial connections, and language barriers, the jobs of many early immigrants were limited to lowly occupations — often in the rickshaw industry, which was generally looked down upon. But by the 1970s, after several generations of hard work, the Henghua community had finally achieved respected positions in various economic sectors. Through the establishment of various associations, the community successfully preserved their social customs, traditions, cuisine, and culture, which in turn contributed to its social and economic development.
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Teochew opera is a regional opera genre that originated in China’s Guangdong province. It is popular in the eastern part of Guangdong, southern Fujian, Hong Kong, and various Chinese communities in Southeast Asia. Chao opera, or Teochew opera, derives its name from its association with Chaozhou and is sung in the Teochew dialect.
Following in the footsteps of the Teochew people who migrated overseas, Teochew opera took root in foreign lands and developed its own distinct local patterns. The earliest recorded mention of Teochew opera in Singapore dates back to 1887 in A Record of the Natural Conditions and Social Customs in Singapore by Li Zhongyu (1853–1927), which states, “There are male and female troupes in the theatres. There are four or five theatres in Da Po (area around South Bridge Road), and one or two in Xiao Po (area around North Bridge Road), all performing Cantonese opera. Occasionally, Hokkien and Teochew operas are also staged.”
It can be inferred that as early as the 19th century, Teochew opera was performed in ceremonies to honour deities in Chinese temples in Singapore. From this perspective, the history of Teochew opera in Singapore spans nearly 200 years.
According to the Directory of Associations in Singapore (1982–1983), the professional Teochew opera troupes during the pre-war and early post-war period included Lau Sai Poh Hong, Lau Sai Thor Guan, Tong Jit Kee Hiang, Lau San Chia Soon, Lau Ee Lye Choon, Lau Tong Chia Soon, Lau Poh Soon Heng, Lau Sai Yong Hong, Lau Gek Lau Choon, Sin Yong Hua Heng, San Chia Soon Hiang, Tong Sai Thor Guan, Tong Jit Tiang Hiang, Lau Jit Kee Hiang, Lau Gek Choon Hiang, Lau Chia Thian Hiang, and others.
Later, there were also Chit Hoon Tep Kek Tuan, Sin Jit Tian Chye Troupe, Teo Goy Troupe, Tok Kang Troupe, and Sin Thor Guan Choon, and finally, Lau Poo Gwee Choon and Kim Eng Teochew Opera Troupe.
In the 19th century, Teochew opera performances in Singapore were often held in front of temples or along the streets, earning the name of street opera. Performances often took place in front of Teochew temples such as Yueh Hai Ching Temple (Wak Hai Cheng Bio in Teochew) and areas inhabited by the Teochew community, including Boat Quay (zab boih khoi ki), Chulia Street (sua kia deng), Circular Road (zab boih goin ao), Robinson Road (lau pa sat kau), Fish Street, Fisher Street, River Valley Road, and North Boat Quay.
Later, Teochew opera performances also took place in relatively fixed venues such as theatres, amusement parks, and opera houses. At that time, the four major Teochew opera theatres were Ee Hng, Tiat Hng, Tong Le Yuan, and Yong Le Yuan.
In the early 20th century, as Singapore’s economy gradually developed and standards of living improved, there was ample opportunity for the development of theatre. Many Teochew opera troupes came to Singapore to perform between the 1920s and 1940s, touring various places in Nanyang and revitalising the Teochew opera stage in the region.
In the 1930s, the Teochew opera stage was exceptionally lively. Each opera troupe averaged about 60 members, and most operators were well-off. There was often intense competition among troupes, with each employing various tactics to attract audiences.
Although Teochew opera performances were an important source of entertainment for Teochew people, early Chinese society generally looked down on actors. Many considered watching vernacular drama as demeaning to their status, and a sign that one lacked refinement. As a result, they preferred the more refined Han opera (hanju). Some wealthy merchants and nobles in the local community organised amateur drama societies mainly focused on performing Han opera, finding pleasure and relaxation in this activity. As a result, amateur drama groups such as the Er Woo Amateur Musical & Dramatic Association, Lak Aik Amateur Musical & Drama Association, Thau Yong Amateur Musical Association, and Chenh Hua Amateur Musical Association emerged. These amateur drama groups not only engaged in musical performances for leisure, but also took to the stage to perform, often organising charity performances to raise funds for disaster relief.
From the late 1950s to early 1960s, local Teochew opera entered a period of prosperity. In September 1959, the first China Teochew opera film The Burning of the Riverside Tower was screened in Singapore, causing a sensation. Within the next five years, So Luk Neung, A Woman Sues Her Own Husband, Chen San and Wu Niang, Swallows Greet the Spring, Hang Kang Huay Ser Kim, The Story of Lau Meng Chu, and others were brought to Singapore and were well-received.
Local traditional Teochew opera troupes began to emulate Teochew opera films, bringing the silver screen to the stage. Not only did many local amateur literary and musical societies switch to performing Teochew opera, amateur drama societies such as Nam Hwa Amateur Musical & Dramatic Association (now Nam Hwa Opera) also emerged in this environment in 1963.
As time passed, Teochew opera in Singapore faced challenges brought about by modernisation and cultural diversification. Nevertheless, there are still traditional Teochew opera troupes and actors who continue to develop and pass on this art form.
There are only a few active professional Teochew opera troupes left, including the Lau Sai Thor Guan, which was established in 1864. Lau Sai Thor Guan was the largest and most reputable troupe in the local Teochew opera scene in the 20th century. The famous director Lim Joo Liak (1906–1981), touxian player Lim Bak Cheow, male lead Chua Poh Choo, and female lead Lee Siew Lang were all key figures in the opera troupe.
In 2017, former TV personality Nick Shen took over Lau Sai Thor Guan and found new audiences for its performances in Chinese temples, leading the troupe’s transformation and the continuation of its legacy.
Among the other currently active amateur Teochew Opera groups, Nam Hwa Opera, which renamed itself at the end of 2018, stands out. It was awarded the Singapore Chinese Cultural Contribution Award (Group Category) in 2023. Under the leadership of its president Toh Lim Mok, Nam Hwa has undergone a systematic transformation, actively nurturing new talents and cultivating young opera performers. One of its young actors Tan Wei Tian was also awarded the New Talent Award in the 2016 Singapore Chinese Opera Orchid Awards by the Singapore Chinese Opera Institute, and currently serves as Nam Hwa’s artistic director.
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In Chinese literature, flash fiction is a genre that is shorter in length than microfiction. After several rounds of discussion and refinement, the consensus reached regarding the word count limit for this ultra-short fiction is “preferably within 300 words, with a maximum limit of 600 words”.1 The form is characterised as short, new, strange, and fleeting, meaning that it pursues micro, novel, ingenious, and refined aspects in writing, and is thus considered a “new literary genre like a spiritual lightning bolt”.2
Flash fiction came into the spotlight after the 8th World Chinese Microfiction Symposium in Hong Kong in 2010. When then-president of the Singapore Association of Writers, Xi Ni Er, attended the symposium and witnessed the enthusiastic discussion among participants on flash fiction, he “feared being left behind by the new trend”.3 Upon returning home, he published three ultra-short stories in Lianhe Zaobao’s Literary City section, titled “Three Flash Fictions”.4 The emerging genre of flash fiction officially made its debut in Singapore with this series. In the following years, with enthusiastic promotion from writers like Xi Ni Er and Xue Feng, many Singapore Chinese-language authors began creating flash fiction.
During the five years between 2011 and 2016, flash fiction in Singapore saw a vibrant, thriving development. In January 2011, the 74th issue of Singapore Chinese Literature — a publication of the Singapore Association of Writers — featured a special collection of microfiction titled Shunjian jingcai (Brilliance in an Instant). Experimentally, the collection included 12 flash fiction pieces by four authors.5 In March the same year, Lianhe Zaobao’s Literary City also released a full colour special feature on flash fiction, featuring works by authors such as Xi Ni Er, Ai Yu, Lin Gao, Xue Feng, Lin Jin, Tong Noong Chin, Nan Zi, and Chia Joo Ming.
The following year, in the 77th issue of Singapore Chinese Literature, the Flash Fiction Special was officially launched, featuring 68 flash fiction works by 40 Singapore authors. After the release of the Flash Fiction Special to warm response, the Singapore Association of Writers seized the opportunity and, in September 2013, compiled and published Xingkong yiran shanshuo: xinjiapo shanxiaoshuo xuan (Twinkling Starry Night: Singapore Flash Fiction Selection). This anthology featured 28 participating authors and included a total of 180 flash fiction works. Additionally, the collection contained some commentary written by authors about flash fiction. With this publication, the theoretical framework for flash fiction had been established, and the lineup of creators was steadily expanding. The release of Xinkong yiran shanshuo can be said to be a significant milestone in the development of flash fiction as a literary genre in Singapore.
In fact, flash fiction creation in Singapore attracted the attention of the international literary community even during its budding stage. In November 2011, the 323rd issue of Hong Kong Literature featured a special edition on flash fiction by Singapore writers. It showcased flash fiction works by writers such as Xi Ni Er, Xue Feng, Ai Yu, Lin Gao, Zhou Can, Chow Teck Seng, Lin Jin, Chua Chee Lay, Tong Noong Chin, and Chia Joo Ming. This marked the first special edition overseas focusing on Singapore flash fiction.
During the same period, the inaugural issue of Dangdai shan xiaoshuo (Contemporary Flash Fiction), edited by Cai Zhongfeng in China, was published. It also included flash fiction works by five Singapore writers, Xi Ni Er, Xue Feng, Nan Zi, Lin Gao, and Tong Noong Chin. In October of the following year, the sixth issue of Dangdai shan xiaoshuo, the Chinese Online column specially featured a “Singapore Chinese Flash Fiction Special”, publishing 14 flash fiction works by nine Singapore authors.6
Many years later, Singapore flash fiction continues to attract attention from around the world. On 7 February 2023, the UCLA Centre for Chinese Studies hosted an online seminar where the discussion was focused on the book, Twinkling Starry Night: Singapore Flash Fiction Selection, published by the Singapore Association of Writers.7
In addition, the third issue of the Taigang wenxue xuankan (Taiwan and Hong Kong Literature Selection) in 2023 (Issue 370) featured a “Singapore Flash Fiction Special”, showcasing the works of 12 Singapore writers.8 The editor-in-chief of the mainland Chinese magazine Shan xiaoshuo (Flash Fiction), as well as the initiator and advocate of Chinese flash fiction, Cheng Siliang (pen name Lengyue Xiaoxiao), also published an article analysing the featured articles titled “yishan yishan liang jingjing” (Twinkling Flashes) in the special issue.
In addition to flash fiction anthologies, individual Singapore Chinese writers such as Zhou Can, Xi Ni Er, and Lin Gao have published their own collections of microfiction or flash fiction. The promotion of flash fiction continues unabated, with writers actively introducing flash fiction works to students through book clubs, school residencies, literary lectures, and other platforms.
The Committee to Promote Chinese Language Learning’s Writing Group has published flash fiction written by students in the Qingchun xilie (Youth Series), a student anthology released in conjunction with the Author-in-Residence Programme in schools. Additionally, in 2020, the Singapore Association of Writers held the 2nd Youth Literature Award: Flash Fiction Writing Competition in the hopes of attracting more young writers to engage in the creation of flash fiction.
There is generally an optimistic attitude towards the future of flash fiction in Singapore, as its concise nature aligns with the fast-paced, fragmented reading habits of modern urban dwellers, making it an ideal trend to pursue in future literary creation. However, others believe that because flash fiction requires condensed and refined writing, it is more challenging to excel in this form.
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Singapore Chinese poetry refers to poetry written or published in Chinese or read in Mandarin or other Chinese dialects in Singapore, about Singapore or by Singapore writers. As a category under Singapore Chinese literature and Singapore poetry, it is a significant part of Singapore national literature, which encompasses works written in the four official languages (English, Chinese, Malay, and Tamil). After a hundred years of development, Singapore Chinese poetry has continuously matured, becoming an important voice in fields such as “Chinese literature,” “Southeast Asian poetry,” and “World Chinese literature”.
The majority of Singapore Chinese poetry is written in modern Chinese. Its roots can be traced back to the 1919 May Fourth Movement in China, which advocated the use of vernacular Chinese. However, some poets still composed poetry in the older, classical forms, such as Khoo Seok Wan (1874–1941), Yu Dafu (1896–1945), and Pan Shou (1911–1999).1
Pursuit of creativity
Contemporary Singapore Chinese poetry emphasizes delicate or concise poetic imagery language, tending towards the depiction of daily life, inner emotions, and universal human themes, and displaying a tendency towards the integration of Chinese and Western cultures. Some poets ingeniously incorporate traditional and classical imagery and poetics, as well as concepts like post-colonialism, surrealism, postmodernism, science, and philosophy into their works, thus reshaping the possibilities of modern Chinese poetry. Such avant-garde works have been seen published by Singapore May Publishing, the May Poetry Society, literary magazine Afterwards, and on poetry online platforms such as In the Space of a Poem (Facebook).
Dialogues with the realities
Some Singapore Chinese poems are themed around news, current affairs, and history. The period from the end of World War II to Singapore’s independence (1945–1965) marked an era of political and social turmoil. Singapore Chinese poetry was largely shaped by its times and characterised by realism and resistance literature, reflecting themes such as anti-colonialism, anti-war sentiments, and the pursuit of social justice. Notable poets from this era include Tie Ge (born Chen Guo Lai, 1923–1948), Zhong Qi (born Zhong Ying Qi, 1928–1970), Fan Bei Ling (born Luo Zi Wei, 1930–2012), Zhou Can (born Chew Kok Chang), Du Hong (born Teh Ah Poon), Liu Bei An (born Chua Boon Hean, 1906–1995), and Yuan Dian (born Lam Yau Cheung).
Between 1919 and 1945, the identity of Singapore Chinese poetry oscillated between expressions of immigrant literature on the one hand, and responses to local or Southeast Asian contexts on the other. After independence, Singaporean Chinese poetry adopted and favoured a more urban literary style, presenting a diverse aesthetic of postmodernism, modernism, and indigenous influences.
Incorporating local characteristics
Many Singapore Chinese poets strive to inject Singaporean and Nanyang (or Southeast Asian) characteristics in their poems. Apart from local Singaporean landmarks and cuisine as imagery, such as the Merlion, Sir Stamford Raffles, Housing and Development Board (HDB) flats, the Mass Rapid Transit (MRT), Nanyang Technological University, districts like Serangoon and Katong, and food items like Hainanese chicken rice, Nyonya rice dumplings, and Nanyang coffee. Some of these works also feature an eclectic blend of the different languages spoken in Singapore.
Serial poetry and short verses
An abundance of serial poetry and short poetry forms (including truncated verses, jieju) are characteristic of Singapore Chinese poetry. Serial poetry are frequently seen in award-winning works of literary contests such as the Golden Point Award and the Singapore Tertiary Literature Award.
Trans-genre and transmedia re-creations
Crossing into the realm of music, Singapore Chinese poetry saw the emergence of shiyue (which features a blend of poetry and songs) in the 1970s and xinyao in the 1980s. The former was created by students from the Nanyang University before its closure, while xinyao originated from students of junior colleges and polytechnics in Singapore, composing songs to express their understanding of Singaporean life, with Liang Wern Fook being a leading figure in the xinyao movement. The songs and soundtracks for local Mandarin television dramas also exhibited literary qualities, with some of the more prominent lyricists being Muzi (born Lee Hock Ming) and Chen Jiaming (born Tan Kah Beng).
Additionally, artist Chen Chong Swee (1910–1985) was known for combining Nanyang Chinese ink paintings with classical-style poetry,2while poet Pan Shou worked with Chinese calligraphy and classical poetic forms.
Singapore Chinese poetry presents strong, notable characteristic of hybridity within the context of the separation of Singapore and Malaysia, the May Fourth Movement, and the multilingual environment,3 including multiple interpretations of Chineseness, local identity, and post-colonialism. In the 1960s, scholars such as Fang Xiu (born Goh Tze Kwang, 1922–2010) examined the evolution of Singapore Chinese poetry from historical lenses, focusing on mainly poetry that embraced realism. Other scholars have instead researched on Singapore Chinese poetry through the perspectives of modernity and modernism.4
From the viewpoint of Sinophone articulation, researchers have also examined Singapore Chinese poetry in relation to literature produced by speakers of other languages (such as the English-speaking, French-speaking and Malay-speaking) around the world , so as to reveal the power dynamics of the “centre” and “periphery”, as well as notions of local agency and identity. Research on world Chinese poetry, Southeast Asian Chinese poetry, and transmedia studies can also contribute to the advancement of Singapore Chinese poetry.5
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During the social unrest in China from the 20th year of Qing emperor Daoguang’s reign (1840) to the early Republic of China era (1911), coastal residents from Fujian, Guangdong, and Hainan, including some Cantonese opera performers, fled to areas such as the United States, Australia, and Southeast Asia. Over time, they spread their roots overseas.
According to Sin Chew Jit Poh, Cantonese opera performers organised Lei Yun Tong as a guild in Singapore in 1857, and it was renamed Pat Wo Wui Kun in 1890. Singapore is known as the second hometown of Cantonese opera. At the time, Cantonese opera troupes such as San Lai Sing, Yim Yeung Tin, Ga Lok, Sing Ping, Dai Law Tin, and San Cing Nien, under the Pat Woh Association Malaysia in Kuala Lumpur, often travelled south to Singapore for performances, enjoying considerable popularity.1
Cantonese opera thrived before World War II. Several theatres in Chinatown, where many Cantonese people gathered, regularly hosted Cantonese opera performances. These theatres included the Po Cheong Chuen Theatre (located on Eu Tong Sen Street, now defunct), the Heng Wai Sun Theatre (also on Eu Tong Sen Street, now defunct), the Tien Yien Moh Toi (later known as the Majestic Theatre, on Eu Tong Sen Street), and the Lai Chun Yuen Theatre (on Smith Street, commonly referred to as Theatre Street).
Among them, the Yong Shou Nian troupe, organised by the renowned Cantonese opera actor Liang Yuanheng (1892–1964),2 performed regularly at the Lai Chun Yuen Theatre. The leading elderly role 3was played by Sing Ga Yuet (birth and death years unknown).4 The Pu Chang Chun troupe, stationed at the Pu Chang Chun Theatre, featured Sheng Jia Nan (birth and death years unknown) in principal eldery roles.5
In addition to professional opera troupes, there were many amateur Cantonese opera groups which contributed to the flourishing of Cantonese opera in the early 20th century. The Hoi Thin Amateur Dramatic Association, established in 1918,6 was the earliest Cantonese opera group in Singapore. Subsequently, other groups such as the Tarn Kah Keng Ying Charitable Dramatic Association (1926), the Yougu Musical Association (1937), and the Kwok Sing Musical Association (1936) were also founded. These organisations actively participated in charity performances during the wartime resistance against Japan.7
From the 1950s to 1970s, there were several local Cantonese opera troupes in Singapore, including Tin Ying, Gam Loong, Pek Wan Tin, and Guong Fai. Opera celebrities from Guangdong province and Hong Kong also performed in Singapore during this period, including Guai Ming Yeung (1909–1958), Pak Yok Tong (1900–1994), Sit Kok Sin (1904–1956), Sun Ma Sze Tsang( 1916–1997), Tam Sin Hung, and Law Kim Long (1921–2003).
Local Cantonese opera performers included Mak Siu Fai (1921–1996), Fa Wan Lan,8 Liew Seng Hwa (1914–1999), Fei Cuiyu (circa 1917–1992),9 and Guo Feiyu (1903–1984).
In addition, Cantonese opera troupes from Hong Kong, such as San Ma, Dai Loong Foong, Chor Foong Ming, Dai Kwan Ying, and Lam Ka Sing, also came to perform in Singapore. One of the actors was Leung Sing Poh (1907–1981),10 who was born in Singapore to a Cantonese opera family and later relocated to Hong Kong. His father was Sing Ga Yuet, and his sister was the famous actress Fa Kay Gin (birth and death years unknown).11 Other notable Cantonese opera actors active in the late 19th to early 20th century were Leng Pai Guo and Yun Se Siong.12
In the early days, Cantonese opera was performed mainly in the theatres mentioned above. From the 1920s, with the emergence of amusement parks like Great World, New World, and Gay World, Cantonese opera started being performed frequently at these venues. At the same time, the flourishing of Cantonese opera also resulted in good business for restaurants and tea houses. It became fashionable for people to visit tea houses and restaurants to listen to Cantonese music. Airview Restaurant, Nam Tin Restaurant, Tai Tong Restaurant, Gaosheng Teahouse, and others had regular performances by Cantonese opera singers.13
Most Cantonese opera performances were held at the People’s Theatre in Chinatown after its completion in 1969. However, for Shen Gong Opera (plays performed for the gods), temporary stages were often erected, making the performances more mobile.14 Today, Cantonese opera is performed at major venues such as the Esplanade — Theatres on the Bay, Singapore Chinese Cultural Centre, and Gateway Theatre.
One of the most notable Cantonese opera troupes in Singapore is Chinese Theatre Circle, which was founded by Leslie Wong (1940–2023), Joanna Wong, Lou Mee Wah, and others. Since its establishment in 1981, the troupe has dedicated itself to promoting Chinese local opera, dance, and music, with Cantonese opera as its main focus. It has performed over 2,000 times domestically and internationally, with tours spanning more than 20 countries such as Europe, the United States, Australia, Brazil, Japan, Egypt, Turkey, and China. In 1995, the troupe became the first non-profit professional Cantonese opera troupe in Singapore, and in 1997, it was honoured with the Singapore Excellence Award. In 1998, it opened the first local opera teahouse in Chinatown.15
Notable works by Chinese Theatre Circle include The Patriotic Princess (1985), Farewell to a Warrior (1984), A Costly Impulse (1988), First Emperor (1995), Wu Ze Tian (2001), and Intrigue in the Qing Imperial Court (Chinese and English version) (1987/2002). In addition, Leslie Wong has written many works such as Qiu Jin (2007), Green Snake (2016), Lady Magistrate Xie Yao Huan (2017), and Rage Over a Courtesan (2024).
In A Costly Impulse (which Foshan Cantonese Opera Troupe adapted from the Shaoxing opera of the same name), the main roles were played by Joanna Wong and Lou Mee Wah. The play was performed in Egypt (1989), Germany (1993), China (1993), Romania (1994), Brazil (2000), and other countries.
Additionally, Chinese Theatre Circle launched an English version of Intrigue in the Qing Imperial Court in 2002. An original Singapore work, its purpose was to attract a younger audience and promote Cantonese opera art overseas. The play has been performed in the United States, China, Ireland, and Ukraine. In 2010, during a performance at the International Arts Festival in Ukraine, it was honoured with the Successful Modernisation of Traditional Theatre Award.16
Another Cantonese opera troupe is the Sin Ming Sing Cantonese Opera Centre, established in 1999. Its founding mission is to create a vibrant future for Cantonese opera in Singapore and promote Chinese opera culture. Under the tutelage of Ling Dongming, a former performer from the Guangdong Cantonese Opera Institute in China, the centre has had nearly 200 different types of performances, full-length plays, special events, and activities involving teachers and students.
The centre’s repertoire includes Fan Li Offers Xi Shi (2014), Fate of Love and Hate Across Lifetimes (2014), Eastern Treasure in Singapore: Cantonese Opera Artistic Performance of Ling Dongming (2018), Continuation and Innovation, Perpetuating the B Tune (2017), and Ling Dongming Meets Fans with Affection (2012). There were guest performances by renowned Cantonese opera artists such as Ding Fan, Karl Maka, Chen Yunhong, Ou Kaiming, Mai Yuqing, and Li Junsheng. The centre has also performed in Hong Kong, Macau, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Zhanjiang, and Malaysia.17
One of the most notable Cantonese opera artists in Singapore is Joanna Wong. She was awarded the Public Service Star (BBM) by the President in 1974, the Cultural Medallion by the Ministry of Culture in 1981, and became a Justice of the Peace in 1998. As the founder and artistic director of Chinese Theatre Circle, she also serves as the Permanent Honorary President and Artistic Advisor of Singapore’s Pat Wo Wui Kun.
Leslie Wong, meanwhile, serves as both the playwright and lyricist for Chinese Theatre Circle. His works include Madame White Snake, Goddess of River Luo, Ode to Singapore, Ode to Chinese Theatre Circle, Qiu Jin, Green Snake, Rage over a Courtesan, Plum Blossom Fan, and more. He was also behind the English versions of Intrigue in the Qing Imperial Court and Dream of the Peony.
Other local Cantonese opera artists are Lou Mee Wah (one of the founders of Chinese Theatre Circle),18 Chee Kin Foon and Chee Siew Fun (the two sisters who founded OperaWorks in 2008),19 and Woo Wai Fong (female wenwu sheng -female who played leading male roles).20
In addition to Chinese Theatre Circle, other active local Cantonese opera groups in Singapore are the longstanding Pat Wo Wui Kun and Kong Chow Wui Koon Opera Troupe, as well as Chinese Opera Society (Singapore), OperaWorks, and Kwok Seng Music Association. Some Cantonese opera groups were established by professional actors who migrated to Singapore. Among them are Ling Dongming’s Sin Ming Sing Cantonese Opera Centre, the Art of Lam Kam Ping Cantonese Opera Performance Association founded by Hong Kong actor Chor Wan Yuk, and others.
The veteran actors currently active on the local Cantonese opera stage include Sally Low Moon Chin, Christopher Choo, See Too Hoi Siang, Gary Kong Yew Cheong, Aw Yeong Peng Mun, and Chan Fook Hong.
Thanks to numerous artists who have carried on the tradition with meticulous care, Cantonese opera has endured and flourished in Singapore. It has become one of the most popular and vibrant regional opera genres on the island.
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For those who grew up in Singapore before the 1990s, mentions of Wang Sha (1925–1998) and Ye Feng (1932–1995) would likely evoke memories of the comedic duo’s getai (stage), radio, or television performances. Lesser known, however, is their active participation in cinema in the 1970s and 1980s.
Between the two, it was Wang who first made the leap onto the big screen in Door of Prosperity (1959). The multi-dialect romance film, directed by Hsu Chiao Meng (1910–1995), took the then newly-opened Nanyang University as its backdrop and starred several local Chinese-language performers. It opened during National Loyalty Week (3–9 December 1959), signalling the team’s commitment to Singapore’s anti-colonial nationalisation and localisation movements.
Later, Wang continued to play a part in the making of such “localised Chinese-language films”. My Love in Malaya (1963), a film shot entirely in Singapore, featured a largely local cast and was produced by Singaporean sisters Chang Lye Lye and Landi Chang. Wang played the role of the main lead’s father, who was also a satay man.
While Wang had an early start in film acting, neither he nor Ye established themselves as full-fledged film performers before the 1970s. It was their participation in Hong Kong’s media industry during the mid-1970s that really kickstarted the duo’s film acting career. In 1974, Ye had his first taste of acting for film in The Nutty Crook (1975), produced by veteran Hong Kong director John Lomar’s film company. Although The Nutty Crook would only be released retrospectively after Ye gained fame for his role in his next film, this experience gave him an inroad into Hong Kong’s film industry.
The next film project that would land on Wang and Ye’s laps was the first of the popular Crazy Bumpkins series: The Crazy Bumpkins (1974). It was also directed by John Lomar, but produced by the Shaw Brothers (Hong Kong) Company. This was the first film that featured both of them together, and the duo impressed audiences with their adept comedic performances and impeccable chemistry. The roaring success of The Crazy Bumpkins affirmed both Wang and Ye’s potential as film actors, paving the way for their gradual move to cinema and, consequently, to Hong Kong.
That being said, the duo’s leap into cinema can, in fact, be traced further back to their first appearance on a Hong Kong TV variety show. Perhaps the single most pivotal event which facilitated the duo’s transition into cinema was their signing on to Hong Kong’s Television Broadcast Limited Company (TVB), which was owned by the Shaw Brothers (HK), through the mediation of Singaporean TV producer Robert Chua Wah Peng.
In the late 1960s, Chua left Singapore’s television industry for Hong Kong to join TVB. Upon arriving in Hong Kong, the producer spent five months observing the local life and culture of Hong Kongers to create the variety show Enjoy Yourself Tonight. The show grew to become hugely popular and in the 1970s, Chua invited Wang and Ye to perform on it. The duo’s act was tremendously well-received, proving that their brand of humour had struck a chord with the people of Hong Kong.
Soon after, TVB officially signed on with the duo, formally marking the beginning of their television and film career in Hong Kong. Wang later became contracted to the Shaw Brothers (HK), and Ye to John Lomar’s film company. Despite signing on to different film companies, Ye continued to act alongside Wang in many Shaw Brothers (HK) productions, including the aforementioned Crazy Bumpkins. This was made possible by special “loan-out” agreements between Lomar’s film company and the Shaws, who believed that even in cinema, Wang and Ye yielded the best results when performing together.
The fact that Wang and Ye’s film-acting endeavours began in Hong Kong (despite being originally based in Singapore) was partly due to industrial realities at that time. Following the closure of major Singapore film studios in the 1960s and early 1970s, coupled with transformative socio-political changes, Singapore had ceased to be a filmmaking centre. Indeed, the 1970s and 1980s were a time in Singapore’s film history when feature filmmaking activity decreased and eventually stopped. This explains why Hong Kong — then a robust media capital in the region — was where the two established their grounds as film actors. More importantly, with this move to Hong Kong, Wang and Ye effectively became among the earliest Singaporean pioneers in Chinese-language media to achieve transnational stardom as film stars in the post-studio era (i.e. the post-1960s).
In total, Wang and Ye acted in approximately 40 films, most of which were shot and produced in Hong Kong. Some of their most popular films include: the popular Crazy Bumpkins series (1974–1976), the Mr Funnybone series (1976 and 1978), and the Mad Monk series (1977 and 1978). The duo stayed in Hong Kong for nearly a decade, with Wang returning to Singapore before Ye after about seven years because he found it harder to adapt to life in Hong Kong, particularly its subtropical climate. Thereafter, Wang did a short stint in Taiwan’s entertainment industry, acting in a few more films that were shot and produced there, including Three Money Hunters (1980).
Overall, Wang and Ye’s film performances often fulfilled the role of comic relief. Besides being a narrative device that relieves emotional tension in heavy dramas, the meaning of comic relief here also refers to a way to soothe the everyday tension of the everyman living in the fast-changing societies of 1970s and 1980s Singapore and Hong Kong through humour. This was a time when both governments pursued aggressive economic policies, turning the cities into two of the fastest-developing capitalist economies within a short span of time. Accompanying this fast and enormous economic growth was the rapid improvement in standards of living, as well as the growth of a collective mindset that was increasingly consumerist and materialistic.
In this context, the characters played by Wang and Ye in these entertaining films provided much-needed moments of respite for both their Singapore and Hong Kong audiences, who were wrestling with the intensifying pace of life in rapidly developing capitalist societies. Their comedic acts often gave familiar everyday scenarios a slapstick or comedic treatment, enabling audiences to laugh at themselves and offering a sense of catharsis. Coupled with the distance afforded by cinema, Wang and Ye’s film characters provided audiences with a temporary avenue through which to laugh and make light of stressful everyday situations, and poke fun at themselves.